MEDIA GLOBALIZATION IN THE SUBCONTINENT …：在南亞次大陸媒介全球化…

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1、CHALLENGES OF MEDIA GLOBALIZATION FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Abida Eijaz ABSTRACT Since the invention of the printing press in 1450, people have acknowledged the potential influence of mass media messages on audiences. The development of commun

2、ication technology enhanced the circle of influence and the world transformed into a ‘global village’. Technology facilitated to ‘remote control’ people and things. Owing to global media every one knows of world events as they happen. The very concept of media globalization reenacts debates that oft

3、en took place long ago in communication research. These are the debates including hypodermic needle paradigms, theories of powerful effects, theories of limited effects, theories stressing media uses and gratifications, theories of reception and resistance. However, media globalization challenges th

4、e concept of Normative Theories of Media. With the expansion and extension of media, the debates of impacts, effects and influences of globalization divide the world into centers and peripheries. Immanuel Wallerstein’s ‘World System Theory’ helps to understand various dimensions of media globalizati

5、on. Economic disparities and class difference are increasing as the richest 20% of world’s population are controlling 82.7% of the world income, while the poorest 20% of World’s population earn only 0.2% of the world’s income. Though debates of NWICO and MacBride report suggested measures but the im

6、pact of media globalization is very complex. Even regimes are affected as well as empowered to affect the wills of individuals due to global media. The ‘CNN Effect’ theory explains this point in detail. Developing countries are more vulnerable. Wilbur Schramm suggested six “essential functions” of c

7、ommunication in developing countries; to contribute to the feeling of nation-ness, to be the voice of national planning, to help to teach the necessary skills, to help to extend the effective market, to prepare people to play their new parts, to prepare the people to play their role as a nation amon

8、g nations. The paper addresses the challenges posed by media globalization in the backdrop of assumed functions of media in developing countries.  “All the world can learn about world events is what New York, London, or Paris chooses to tell them. Farrar, Ronald t. (1997). Mass Communication an I

9、ntroduction to the Field. New York: The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc. Since the invention of the printing press in 1450, people have acknowledged the potential influence of mass media messages on audiences. The development of communication technology enhanced the circle of influence. Mass media bro

10、ught major alteration in both human thought at the individual level and cultural developments at the collective level. The process of social, cultural and technological evolution is by no means at an end. In the pre-empirical era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scholars from various disci

11、plines concentrated on the potential influences of press. Among the prominent researchers were Max Weber (1910), Walter Lippmann (1922), Willard Bleyer (1924), John Dewey (1927), and Robert Ezra Park (1940). The empirical era perceived mass media as catering powerful, direct and immediate effects at

12、 a large scale. This assumption of media effects led to extensive studies in areas ranging from political campaigns to portrayal of violence, pornography, racial discrimination and women etc. Technology facilitated the processes of connectedness at a larger scale. This phenomenon of increased in

13、terconnectedness of economies, polities, societies and cultures is perceived as globalization. Media served as a tool to accelerate these processes and rubbed the boundaries. Anthony Giddens Giddens, A., (1990): The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford University Press, p.64. called this rapid deve

14、lopment ‘time-space distanciation’. Technology facilitated to ‘remote control’ people and things. The coverage of world events by global media is so pervasive that almost every key office and operations center around the globe keeps sets constantly tuned to the global channels. In real-time warfare,

15、 everyone knows as soon as events happen. The very concept of media globalization reenacts debates that often took place long ago in communication research. These are the debates including hypodermic needle paradigms, theories of powerful effects, theories of limited effects, theories stressing medi

16、a uses and gratifications, theories of reception and resistance. With the expansion and extension of media, the debates of impacts, effects and influences of globalization divide the world into centers and peripheries. Immanuel Wallerstein’s ‘World System Theory’ helps to understand various dimensio

17、ns of media globalization. The World System Theory (WST) describes three levels of technology involved in the global communications; countries equipped with modern technology are labeled as core nations, countries that are in transitional age and striving hard to get an access to modern technology a

18、re semi-peripheral nations while countries with poor information and communication technology are peripheral nations. WST is a functional model of the global flow of information, goods, and services from core nations (e.g., US, EU, Japan) to semi-peripheral (e.g., Mexico, Brazil, Middle East) and pe

19、ripheral (e.g., most of Africa, Latin America, Asia) nations. Media globalization trends equipped owners to produce and distribute messages at a larger scale. Cross ownership and conglomeration trends equipped the owners to perpetuate similar messages through various media. Conglomeration trends

20、 are the product of media globalization and tend to monopolize and blur the idea of plurality of voices. Ben H. Bagdikian Ben H. Bagdikian (1997). The Media Monopoly. Boston: Beacon Press traces the cross ownership and conglomeration trends in his book ‘Media Monopoly.’ He says that in 1983, fifty

21、 corporations dominated most of every mass medium. In 1987, the fifty companies shrunk to twenty nine. In 1990, the twenty nine had shrunk to twenty three. In 1997, there were ten biggest media firms that dominated almost every mass medium. Transnational circulation of cultures paved the way to accu

22、lturation that promoted commercialization and commodification. These trends benefited the owners and facilitated political economy of the media. The entire process is assisting concentration of wealth in few hands of the world. Economic disparities and class difference is increasing day by day. Plan

23、ning and policy making is in the hands of richest. They are the owners of media giants and media moguls, maneuvering ideologies. They formulate policies and control message systems of their corporations. Through the media mechanism they are manipulating the perceptions, thinking and psyches of peopl

24、e. Media globalization facilitates them to control semi peripheral and peripheral nations. Core nations are technologically advanced and rich. The richest 20% of world’s population are controlling 82.7% of the world income while the poorest 20% of World’s population earn only 0.2% of the world’s inc

25、ome. Media globalization assists the richest to control the poor and maintain the status quo. The argument is corroborated by the following graph. Distribution of world GDP, 1989 Quintile of Population Income Richest 20% 82.7% Second 20% 11.7% Third 20% 2.3% Fourth 20% 2.4% Poorest 20%

26、 0.2% Source: United Nations Development Program. 1992 Human Development Report Almost all the richest belong to the core countries. However, the majority of the ruling richest in third world is indebted to core nations for their intellect, legitimacy and sustaining power. Although new communicat

27、ion technology is providing additional means of dissemination of information but in developing countries it is leading to widen the gap between those who have access to information and those who do not have it. This phenomenon of "communication imperialism" is a conscious and organized effort taken

28、by the U.S. military-communication conglomerates to maintain a commercial, political, and military superiority. They are policing the world system through global media. McKibben Bill McKibben. (1992). The Age Of Missing Information. New York: Random House. P.160. writes, “We believe that we live i

29、n the ‘a(chǎn)ge of information’, that there has been an information ‘revolution’. While in a certain narrow sense this is the case, in many important ways the opposite is true”. It has become a challenge to get a conceptual grip on a rising, wide-ranging and globe-shaking processes caused by global media

30、. Individuals’ cognitions are susceptible to the dominant media. Even regimes are affected as well as empowered to affect the wills of individuals due to global media. The ‘CNN Effect’ theory explains this point in detail. CNN is seen in 212 countries with a daily one billion global audience. A vivi

31、d example of CNN effect is George H. W. Bush’s decision to send American troops in Somalia in 1992 and Clinton’s decision to withdraw them the very next year in 1993. Since the September 11 attacks on the US, international and US media provided millions of people around the world different images of

32、 hijacked planes slamming into the World Trade Center in New York. In response, US attacked Afghanistan on 7th October 2001 and the coverage was mainly provided by US media. There was not a single voice from Afghanistan or any other developing countries’ media. A critical analysis of the framing of

33、US-Afghan conflict (what and how content is included and excluded) brings forth the challenges of media globalization for developing countries. The conflict is framed as ‘War on Terrorism’ or ‘War Against Terrorism.’ However, an in-depth analysis proves it vice versa. As a result of New World In

34、formation and Communication Order (NWICO), less developed countries decided to reduce their dependence on the media of core countries. Import of information technology was promoted to get independence but the further extension of technology gave rise to domination of core countries and dependence of

35、 periphery countries. This phenomenon promoted media imperialism. Schiller Schiller, Herbert. (1992). Mass communications and American empire, Westview: Boulder & Co. defines "communication imperialism" as a conscious and organized effort taken by the U.S. military-communication conglomerates to m

36、aintain a commercial, political, and military superiority. Though, the Mac Bride Commission UNESCO, Many Voices, One World. (New York: UNESCO, 1980). issued a report in 1980 that demanded for ‘wider and better balance’ and a ‘plurality of channels and information.’ Varis Varis, T. (1984). The inte

37、rnational flow of television programs. Journal of Communication, 34(1), 143-152. pointed out that although new communication technology may provide additional means of dissemination of information, it may also lead to widen the gap between those who have access to information and those who do not

38、have it. As the knowledge-gap hypothesis suggests that better educated people are more benefitted of the information technology as compared to the less educated people. Moreover, people who belong to higher socio-economic status are better facilitated of the information technology than the lower sta

39、tus. Global media is widening the scope and sustaining this gap. Since its inception, Pakistan is facing economic disparities. Pakistanis who belong to higer socio-economic status can avail vast opportunities. They have an access to a variety of information sources. They are better informed and they

40、 can easily handle issues pertaining to technology. They know internet terminology and they can follow machine related instructions. According to the researcher’s observations as a teacher, talented students who belong to lower socio-economic status usually remain ignorant of different scholarships

41、and job opportunities. Though, such incentives are meant for the financial assistance of the poor. Foreign and Higher Education Commission (HEC) scholarship announcements usually appear on internet. Pakistan is experiencing three worlds within it. There are handful of people (upper class) who enjoy

42、all luxuries and facilities of core countries. Situations are maneuvered and controlled by them. They are the political elite and their roots are in feudalism. They have an access to every kind of information. Majority is poor (lower class) and belongs to rural areas. They are experiencing the condi

43、tions of peripheral countries, depending on ruling class for every kind of information. They neither have an access to latest information technology nor can benefit of it. Intensive load shedding makes it hard for middle class educated people to enjoy the benefits of latest information technology. T

44、hus the latest information and communication technology is empowering the upper class. Technological advancement brought changes in the perceived roles and functions of media. Wilbur Schramm listed the following six “essential functions” of communication in developing countries. To contribute to

45、the feeling of nation-ness, to be the voice of national planning, to help to teach the necessary skills, to help to extend the effective market, to prepare people to play their new parts, to prepare the people to play their role as a nation among nations. Co modification of information and outso

46、urcing of media contents restricted the ‘essential functions’ of media. The early concern revolved around the effects of the press as the press was the only mass media effecting people at a larger scale. Scholars studied the press to bring reforms in society so the early concern was ‘reformist media

47、’. Social responsibility theory of the press reflects this approach. The focus was on potentially changing rather than defending media practices. Harold D. Lasswell described following as functions of media; surveillance of the environment, correlation of different parts of the society in responding

48、 to the environment, and transmission of the social heritage to next generations. Charles Wright added the function of entertainment. Though, the processes and effects of modern media were not similar to print media. Television and internet changed the scope, nature and types of media effects. Tele

49、vision is perceived as a ‘goblet’ empowering common people to see the entire world in it. Cultivation theory assumes the role of television as a family member, telling stories and serving as a cultural arm at societal level. Television contents are controlled by the owners and agenda is set by the p

50、olicy makers. Audience gets source-centered messages and information. Early communication debates and research projects revolved around ‘says what’ and ‘to whom’ aspects of communication. A critical study of ‘who’ did not get attention for a long time. In case of global media, agenda is not arranged

51、 by local forces. It deeply effects on policy agenda and public agenda. Contents of global media can not be a voice of developing country’s planning. Multi-national Corporations and Trans-national Corporations that sponsor global media contents, promote foreign business. This phenomena destabilizes

52、national economies. Immediate effects of global media appear in rearrangement and revision of foreign policies and long-term effects are observed in the form of acculturation and shift in ideologies. Though plurality of channels promoted political polarization, but the west considered rise of re

53、st as threat. Chris Patterson Accessed on 3rd July, 2002. noted that wire and television agencies' coverage is not neutral, because journalism has an "ideological component” a way of seeing the world. Demonization of Muslims is very vivid in western media. Muslims are identified as liberal, radic

54、al or extremists. News has a predominantly North-South flow so, international news agencies treat western governments and trans-national corporations as 'priority' sources over institutions from developing countries. However, latest technology is perceived as equipping people to contribute in the ma

55、nufacturing of contents. Internet blogging, tweeter and face-book are relatively providing space to interact, control and launch contents according to their own will. But their usage lies with upper socio-economic class. They can easily interact with the people of the other corner of world but they

56、can not communicate with their own folk. Martin Luther King said, “Men often hate each other because they fear each other; they fear each other because they don’t know each other; they don’t know each other because they can not communicate; they can not communicate because they are separated (195

57、8). This foreign communication phenomenon hampers the way to the feeling of nation-ness. The result is absence of correlation in different parts of societies in responding to environment. It also serves as an impediment to the transmission of culture, norms and values of one generation to the next.

58、In general the essential function of media to create feelings of nation-ness is hindered. Culture of any society serves as a glue and bond to bring people closer and united. Entertainment is considered as a classic function of media. A large number of Hollywood films, and other entertainment progr

59、ams, are outsourced and imported by developing countries. Glamorous picture of developed countries results in brain drain. The trends of immigration to developed countries are at increase. Moreover, people often use information technology for entertainment. Festive media keeps audience in a festive

60、mood. Access to cable channels is almost free as the subscription is extremely nominal. Such environment hampers media to be the voice of national planning and to create feelings of nation-ness. Inefficient system capabilities, including extractive, regulative, distributive, responsive and symbolic

61、capabilities do not provide opportunities to the media to be the voice of national planning. Media in developing countries should help to teach necessary skills. Most of the developing countries have been colonies of Britain so they have continued with the same legacy. Their systems are almost t

62、he same even the educational system is almost the same. Medium of instruction is English. People of a same country do not know the languages spoken in other parts of the country. English reflects the master slave relationship and indigenous languages are dealt with high headedness. English is the la

63、nguage of the majority of global media available in developing countries. Feelings of nation-ness can not be created through a foreign language. As far as indigenous media is concerned, a ‘two-step flow of communication’ effects on it. Global media contents, formats and agenda shifts to indigenous m

64、edia. Film themes, television talk shows and dramas are copied. Imported solutions can serve only in similar perspective and backgrounds. Global media is promoting celebrity cultism and media celebrities are serving as guides and role models irrespective of the cultures, languages and religions.

65、Global media is considered to promote and extend effective market. Market forces shaped the corporate culture and giant media corporations emerged as a result. However the economic structures are different in various parts of the world. American capitalism is based on liberal and free market concept

66、 while Asian capitalism is sate controlled and guided capitalism. Global media is promoting the business of transnational and multi-national corporations. That is again destabilizing the economy of developing countries. Debts of developing countries are increasing day by day while TNCs, MNCs are making money in developing countries. Due to increased commercialization trends, fetish culture is flour