401 隔振系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì)
401 隔振系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì),系統(tǒng),實(shí)驗(yàn),試驗(yàn),總體,整體,方案設(shè)計(jì)
1南 通 大 學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)任務(wù)書題目 隔振系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì) 學(xué) 生 姓 名 卓士偉 學(xué) 院 機(jī)械工程學(xué)院 專 業(yè) 機(jī)械工程及自動(dòng)化 班 級(jí) 機(jī) 034 學(xué) 號(hào) 0341120W 起 訖 日 期 2007 年 3 月~7 月 指導(dǎo)教師 吳努 職稱 教授 發(fā)任務(wù)書日期 2007 年 3 月 28 日2課題的內(nèi)容和要求(研究?jī)?nèi)容、研究目標(biāo)和解決的關(guān)鍵問(wèn)題)研究目標(biāo)及研究?jī)?nèi)容:對(duì)于剛度、阻尼兩個(gè)影響因素與隔振系統(tǒng)減振性能之間的關(guān)系作出 較為深入的分析,并進(jìn)一步進(jìn)行隔振性能影響因素的敏感性分析。為載運(yùn)工具(汽 車)的隔振裝置設(shè)計(jì)提供有價(jià)值的建設(shè)性意見(jiàn)。關(guān)鍵問(wèn)題:隔振系統(tǒng)研究和設(shè)計(jì),隔振系 統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)臺(tái)設(shè)計(jì),數(shù)據(jù) 處理,激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析。課題的研究方法和技術(shù)路線研究方法:理論設(shè)計(jì)與實(shí)驗(yàn)調(diào)試相結(jié)合技術(shù)路線:查閱相關(guān)技術(shù)資料,搜集有用信息 --確定課題總體技術(shù)方案--設(shè)計(jì)隔振系統(tǒng)試驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案--選擇 激振方案-- 設(shè)計(jì) 激振系統(tǒng)-- 校核激振系統(tǒng)-- 激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析基 礎(chǔ) 條 件1、學(xué)生具備機(jī)械工程及自動(dòng)化的基 礎(chǔ)知識(shí);2、指導(dǎo)教師及學(xué)生已對(duì)本課題進(jìn) 行了相應(yīng)的了解和研究。3、公司具有相應(yīng)的實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)備和材料。3參考文獻(xiàn)[1] 陳松淇 季文美 機(jī)械振動(dòng) 北京:科學(xué)出版社,1985,6.1~6.[2] 鄭兆昌 機(jī)械振動(dòng) 北京: 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社.1980,8.73~76[3] 徐錦康 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì) 北京: 高等教育出版社.2002,7[4] 孫寶鈞 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)課程設(shè)計(jì) 北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。2002.12[5] 王建民 機(jī)電工程測(cè)試技術(shù) 北京:中國(guó)計(jì)量出版社,1995.132~145[6] 徐灝 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)第 5 卷 北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。1992.1 [7] 余志生 汽車?yán)碚?北京:清華大學(xué)出版社.1984[8] 楊黎明 黃凱等 機(jī)械零件設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè) 北京:國(guó)防工業(yè)出版社。1986.12[9] 王章忠 機(jī)械工程材料 北京.機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。2001.5[10] 余志生 汽車?yán)碚?北京:清華大學(xué) 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。2000.10[11] 吳國(guó)梁 座椅垂直振動(dòng)傳遞特性的試驗(yàn)研究 南京:東南大學(xué).1998[12] 張 雨 改善客車駕駛員座椅舒適性的研究 湖南省面向 21 世紀(jì)高新技術(shù)研討會(huì),1999.10[13] 張 雨 隔振系統(tǒng)混沌控制的研究與實(shí)驗(yàn) 長(zhǎng)沙交通學(xué)院學(xué) 報(bào).2000,16(1)[14] 庾永貴 隔振系統(tǒng)檢測(cè)方法的研究 長(zhǎng)沙:長(zhǎng)沙交通學(xué)院工學(xué)學(xué)士論文本課題必須完成的任務(wù):1、查閱有關(guān)隔振裝置方面的資 料 15 篇以上;2、了解隔振理論,設(shè)計(jì)隔振系統(tǒng)試驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案,畫出部件裝配圖及相關(guān)零件圖, (合計(jì) 0 號(hào)圖紙 1 張,一號(hào)圖紙 3 張);3、選擇激振方案,設(shè)計(jì)與校核激振系統(tǒng);4、激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng) 的分析;5、翻譯英文資料一份;6、獨(dú)立撰寫畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書。成果形式1、完成英文資料譯文一份(不少于 5000 英文字符);2、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書,字?jǐn)?shù)不少于 1 萬(wàn)字;3、圖紙,合計(jì) 0 號(hào)圖紙 1 張,一號(hào)圖紙 3 張;4、原理圖和數(shù)據(jù)處理流程圖存 軟盤。4進(jìn)度計(jì)劃起訖日期 工作內(nèi)容 備 注30/3-1/4 調(diào)研,查閱資料2/4-15/4 篩選資料,完成開(kāi)題報(bào)告16/4-29/4了解隔振理論和有關(guān)應(yīng)用于汽車的隔振措施,隔振系統(tǒng)試驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì)30/4-13/5 激振方案選擇、激振系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)與校核14/5-27/5激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析,工作臺(tái)設(shè)計(jì),完成英文資料翻譯28/5-10/6 完成圖紙,撰寫畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書11/6-24/6 完善畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書,準(zhǔn)備畢業(yè)答辯25/6-2/7 畢業(yè)答辯指導(dǎo)教師簽字____________________年______月______日教研室審核意 見(jiàn)教研室主任簽字__________________年______月______日院長(zhǎng)簽字______年______月______日南通大學(xué)本科生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)開(kāi)題報(bào)告任務(wù)來(lái)源 社會(huì)生產(chǎn)實(shí)際 經(jīng) 費(fèi)課題名稱 隔振系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì)國(guó)內(nèi)文獻(xiàn) 14 篇 開(kāi)題日期 2007-4-6閱讀文獻(xiàn)情 況 國(guó)外文獻(xiàn) 2 篇 開(kāi)題地點(diǎn)一 文獻(xiàn)綜述與調(diào)研報(bào)告:(闡述課題研究的現(xiàn)狀及發(fā)展趨勢(shì),本課題研究的意義和價(jià)值、參考文獻(xiàn))機(jī)械設(shè)備在運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)時(shí)將不可避免地產(chǎn)生振動(dòng),振動(dòng)是造成工程結(jié)構(gòu)損壞及壽命降低的原因,同時(shí),振動(dòng)會(huì)導(dǎo)致機(jī)器和儀器儀表的工作效率、工作質(zhì)量和工作精度的降低;此外,機(jī)械結(jié)構(gòu)的振動(dòng)是產(chǎn) 生結(jié)構(gòu)振動(dòng)輻射噪聲的主要原因,如建筑機(jī)械、交通運(yùn) 輸機(jī)械等產(chǎn)生的噪聲是構(gòu)成城市噪聲的主要來(lái)源;振動(dòng)對(duì)人體也會(huì)產(chǎn)生很大的危害,振動(dòng)會(huì)引起人體內(nèi)部器官的振動(dòng)或共振,從而導(dǎo)致疾病的發(fā)生,對(duì)人體造成危害, 嚴(yán)重時(shí)會(huì)影響人們的生命安全,因此振 動(dòng)是一種不可忽略的公害。控制振動(dòng)的一個(gè)重要的方法就是隔振。隔振裝置的雛形可追溯到本世紀(jì) 20 年代出現(xiàn)的采用電磁閥控制的緩沖器。直到 1960 年前后才出現(xiàn)較復(fù)雜的隔振系統(tǒng),近 20年來(lái),隔振的研究已經(jīng)擴(kuò)展至各工程領(lǐng)域,吸引了越來(lái)越多的從事力學(xué)、控制、計(jì)算機(jī)及材料等科學(xué)的研究人員,促 進(jìn)了這門交叉學(xué)科的發(fā)展。隔振的作用是減小振源和被隔振物體之間的動(dòng)態(tài)耦合,從而減少不良振動(dòng)傳遞給被保護(hù)物體或從物體傳出. 振動(dòng)被動(dòng)控制由于不需外界能源,裝置結(jié)構(gòu)較簡(jiǎn)單,易于 實(shí)現(xiàn),經(jīng)濟(jì) 性與可靠性好,在許多場(chǎng)合下減振效果滿意,已廣泛地在各工程領(lǐng)域中得到應(yīng)用。但隨著科學(xué)技術(shù)的發(fā)展,以及人們對(duì)振動(dòng)環(huán)境, 對(duì)產(chǎn)品與結(jié)構(gòu)振動(dòng)特性越來(lái)越高的要求,振動(dòng)被動(dòng)控制的局限性就暴露出來(lái)了, 難以滿 足人們的要求。例如 ,增加振源和被保護(hù)物體之間的相對(duì)位移,增加安裝的尺寸.質(zhì)量和成本等.在柔性隔振器上安裝一些相互連接著的部件時(shí),會(huì)增加它們之間的對(duì)中難度,這通常具有危害性.因此,在許多情況下,需要采用一種多參數(shù)優(yōu)化方法來(lái)獲得合適的隔振效果并滿足其它約束條件我的課題就是解決汽車座椅和減振器的隔振問(wèn)題,通過(guò)改變其阻尼或剛度,或同時(shí)改變其阻尼和剛度使驅(qū)動(dòng)器在驅(qū)動(dòng)座椅時(shí)產(chǎn)生的振動(dòng)經(jīng)過(guò)彈性體時(shí)衰減,來(lái)有效地減弱減速箱和座椅骨架所產(chǎn)生的共振,從而減小了座椅系統(tǒng)的噪音和振動(dòng)。本課題研究的意義和價(jià)值:鞏固在大學(xué)四年所學(xué)的知識(shí),理論聯(lián)系實(shí)際,積極參與社會(huì)實(shí)際生產(chǎn)。在公司原來(lái)的 產(chǎn)品上實(shí)現(xiàn)技術(shù)上的突破,來(lái)參與激烈的市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。參考文獻(xiàn): [1] 陳松淇 季文美 機(jī)械振動(dòng) 北京:科學(xué)出版社,1985,6.1~6.[2] 鄭兆昌 機(jī)械振動(dòng) 北京: 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社.1980,8.73~76[3] 徐錦康 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì) 北京: 高等教育出版社.2002,7[4] 孫寶鈞 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)課程設(shè)計(jì) 北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。2002.12[5] 王建民 機(jī)電工程測(cè)試技術(shù) 北京:中國(guó)計(jì)量出版社,1995.132~145[6] 徐灝 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)第 5 卷 北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。1992.1 [7] 余志生 汽車?yán)碚?北京:清華大學(xué)出版社.1984[8] 楊黎明 黃凱等 機(jī)械零件設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè) 北京:國(guó)防工業(yè)出版社。1986.12[9] 王章忠 機(jī)械工程材料 北京.機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。2001.5[10] 余志生 汽車?yán)碚?北京:清華大學(xué) 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社。2000.10[11] 吳國(guó)梁 座椅垂直振動(dòng)傳遞特性的試驗(yàn)研究 南京:東南大學(xué).1998[12] 張 雨 改善客車駕駛員座椅舒適性的研究 湖南省面向 21 世紀(jì)高新技術(shù)研討會(huì),1999.10[13] 張 雨 隔振系統(tǒng)混沌控制的研究與實(shí)驗(yàn) 長(zhǎng)沙交通學(xué)院學(xué) 報(bào).2000,16(1)[14] 庾永貴 隔振系統(tǒng)檢測(cè)方法的研究 長(zhǎng)沙:長(zhǎng)沙交通學(xué)院工學(xué)學(xué)士論文[15] Sargand S M, Shong Z. Free Vibration of Circular Footing on Elastic Foundation. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 1987, 18 (7): 141~149[16] Hege.P,Genovx.G, The SARIB Vibration Absorber,9th European Rotorcraft Forum,1983 W.E.HooPer 衛(wèi) n二 本課題的基本內(nèi)容,預(yù)計(jì)解決的難題研究目標(biāo)及研究?jī)?nèi)容:(1)對(duì)于剛度、阻尼兩個(gè)影響因素與隔振系統(tǒng)減振性能之間的關(guān)系作出較為深入的分析,并進(jìn)一步進(jìn)行隔振性能影響因素的敏感性分析。(2)為載運(yùn)工具(汽車)的隔振裝置設(shè)計(jì)提供有價(jià)值的建設(shè)性意見(jiàn)。(3)研究的主要內(nèi)容:1、隔振系統(tǒng)試驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì);2、激振方案選擇;3、激振系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)與校核;4 激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析。關(guān)鍵問(wèn)題:(1( 隔振系統(tǒng)研究和設(shè)計(jì);(2( 隔振系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)臺(tái)設(shè)計(jì);(3( 數(shù)據(jù)處理;(4( 激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析。三 課題的研究方法、技術(shù)路線研究方法:(1)查閱相關(guān)資料,整理有用信息;(2)隔振裝置的機(jī)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)及運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)分析;(3)激振系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)與校核;(4)激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析。技術(shù)路線:第一步:查閱相關(guān)技術(shù)資料,搜集有用信息;第二步:確定課題總體技術(shù)方案;第三步:設(shè)計(jì)隔振系統(tǒng)試驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案;第四步:選擇激振方案;第五步:設(shè)計(jì)激振系統(tǒng);第六步:校核激振系統(tǒng);第七步:激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析。四 研究工作條件和基礎(chǔ)1、學(xué)生具備一定的機(jī)械工程及自動(dòng)化專業(yè)知識(shí);2、學(xué)生有較好的數(shù)學(xué)基礎(chǔ);3、學(xué)生具備較好的計(jì)算機(jī)應(yīng)用能力;4、單位提供相關(guān)設(shè)備和材料。起止日期 論文工作進(jìn)度(主要內(nèi)容、完成要求)31/3-1/42/4-15/416/4-29/430/4-13/530/4-20/521/5-10/611/6-24/625/6-2/7五 計(jì)劃進(jìn)度調(diào)研,查閱資料;篩選資料,完成開(kāi)題報(bào)告;了解隔振理論和有關(guān)應(yīng)用于汽車的隔振措施,隔振系統(tǒng)試驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì)激振方案選擇、激振系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)與校核激振系統(tǒng)用于汽車部件振動(dòng)的分析,工作臺(tái)設(shè)計(jì),完成英文資料翻譯 完成圖紙,撰寫畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書;完善畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書,準(zhǔn)備畢業(yè)答辯;畢業(yè)答辯文獻(xiàn)調(diào)研完成日期15/4 論文實(shí)驗(yàn)完成日期 20/5論文階段完成日期 撰寫論文完成日期24/6 評(píng)議答辯完成日期 2/7指導(dǎo)教師評(píng)語(yǔ)導(dǎo)師簽名: 年 月 日教研室意見(jiàn)主任簽名: 年 月 日學(xué)院意見(jiàn)院長(zhǎng)簽名: 年 月 日南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)立題卡課題名稱 隔振系統(tǒng)實(shí)驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì) 出題人 王世波課題表述(簡(jiǎn)述課題的背景、目的、意義、主要內(nèi)容、完成課題的條件、成果形式等)隨著我國(guó)現(xiàn)代化的發(fā)展,隔振裝置在工程領(lǐng)域內(nèi)正發(fā)揮著日益重要的作用,尤其在汽車上發(fā)揮著更為重要作用,如減振器、座椅、輪胎、彈簧鋼板、氣囊等等。這些裝置對(duì)人體起著巨大的保護(hù)作用。本設(shè)計(jì)的目的是解決汽車座椅和減振器的隔振問(wèn)題,通過(guò)改變其阻尼或剛度,或同時(shí)改變其阻尼和剛度使驅(qū)動(dòng)器在驅(qū)動(dòng)座椅時(shí)產(chǎn)生的振動(dòng)經(jīng)過(guò)彈性體時(shí)衰減,來(lái)有效 減 減 和座椅 產(chǎn)生的 振, 減 座椅系統(tǒng)的 和振動(dòng)。本課題設(shè)計(jì)的主要內(nèi)容 、隔振系統(tǒng) 驗(yàn)臺(tái)總體方案設(shè)計(jì) 、 振方案 、 振系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì) 振系統(tǒng)用 汽車 件振動(dòng)的 ?。完成課題的條件 ¢£?經(jīng)¥? 大§ 本課題有currency1的'“,¢£?? 有的實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)?,¢£??fi名工程fl作為 的–??fl。成果形式 · 、???· 、?”設(shè)計(jì)?…‰等。課題來(lái) ? 生產(chǎn)實(shí)` 課題′? ?”設(shè)計(jì)?課題對(duì)ˉ生的要? ˙?fi¨的 ?工程? 動(dòng)化?”?ˇ,有— 的 ˉ 和計(jì) 用 。意 主 名 ? 日ˉ 意 同意a題( ) 同意a題( ) ˉ 名 ? 日1、?表fi式??,ˉ 、 、ˉ生o案 fi?。 2、課題來(lái) 是– 1. ,2.? 生產(chǎn)實(shí)`,3. 其 。3、課題′?是– 1.?” ,2.?”設(shè)計(jì)。4、 意 在? ?”–? ? , ?課題的工作§大 ,??程度?是?? ?” 目 和要?等內(nèi)容?出˙體的意 和建議。5、ˉ 可根據(jù)?”特點(diǎn),可對(duì)?表格進(jìn)行適當(dāng)?shù)男薷?。南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 1 -實(shí)體自由成型制造與快速原型制造1.1 實(shí)體自由成形制造方法可以用幾種制造方法將 CAD 信息轉(zhuǎn)換為原型物體。自 1987 年以來(lái),又出現(xiàn)了幾種新的技術(shù)來(lái)完成這一轉(zhuǎn)換。就在 1987 年,3D 系統(tǒng)公司(3D Systems Inc.)推出了立體光刻(SLA)這一技術(shù)。在隨后的 5 年里,又出現(xiàn)了幾種與之相競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的技術(shù)。這一組新技術(shù)一般通稱為實(shí)體自由成形制造(solid freeform fabrication,SFF)。正如大多數(shù)新技術(shù)都要經(jīng)歷第 2 章所描述的市場(chǎng)接納 S 形曲線一樣,實(shí)體自由成形制造領(lǐng)域經(jīng)歷了相當(dāng)長(zhǎng)的廣告宣傳階段。其他用來(lái)描述實(shí)體自由成形制造這一技術(shù)的詞匯還包括:·需求中的零件(part on demand);·從藝術(shù)到零件(from art to part);·桌面上制造(desktop manufacturing);·快速成形(rapid prototyping)。在撰寫本書時(shí),專門從事原型制造的公司已將立體光刻(SLA)、選擇性激光燒結(jié)(SI。S)、熔融沉積制造(FDM)和分層實(shí)體制造(LOM)用于日常商業(yè)活動(dòng)中。以玉米淀粉、塑料和陶瓷為材料的三維印刷(3DP)也正進(jìn)入商業(yè)應(yīng)用。還有幾種原型制造方法雖具有潛力,但并沒(méi)有以盈利目的被第三方普遍采用。鑄造是一個(gè)特例,它仍然被用于單件原型制造。另外,當(dāng)用立體光刻做好模具后,采用鑄造進(jìn)行 10~500 批量范圍的生產(chǎn)仍然非常經(jīng)濟(jì)。機(jī)加工也用于單件或幾件批量的原型制造。1.1.1 實(shí)體自由成形制造與快速成形技術(shù)總結(jié)用于日常商業(yè)性活動(dòng)的包括:·立體光刻;·選擇性激光燒結(jié);·分層實(shí)體制造;·熔融沉積制造。處于研究與開(kāi)發(fā)階段的包括:·以玉米淀粉、塑料和陶瓷為材料的三維印刷;·以塑料為材料并由機(jī)加工來(lái)銑平的三維印刷;·實(shí)體磨削固化(SGC,與 SLA 類似);·形狀沉積制造(SDM,分層疊加與分層遞減的結(jié)合)。非實(shí)體自由成形制造(傳統(tǒng)方法)包括:南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 2 -·機(jī)加工;·鑄造??巳R斯勒汽車公司于 20 世紀(jì) 90 年代初所作的比較研究表明,SLA 技術(shù)比與其競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的非傳統(tǒng)原型制造方法,在成本上和精度上要領(lǐng)先(此項(xiàng)研究沒(méi)有包括對(duì)機(jī)加工和鑄造工藝的評(píng)價(jià))。本章對(duì)有關(guān)技術(shù)進(jìn)行描述后,將附加圖表來(lái)對(duì)它們的成本與精度進(jìn)行比較。近10 年來(lái),SLA 已進(jìn)一步證明了它是應(yīng)用最多的實(shí)體自由成形制造技術(shù),特別是在鑄造和注塑成形時(shí)用它來(lái)制作模具。在撰寫本書時(shí),SLS、FDM 和 LOM 是繼 SLA 后最常見(jiàn)的技術(shù)。1.1.2 實(shí)體自由成形制造的發(fā)展歷史20 世紀(jì) 70 年代末,米得(Mead)和康韋((20nway)奠定了超大規(guī)模集成電路(VLSI)的快速成形基礎(chǔ)口“。于是,電路的設(shè)計(jì)者們開(kāi)始采用 5 種二維模式進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)。這些模式定義了金屬氧化物半導(dǎo)體(MOS)晶片上的三層疊式互連及各層之間通過(guò)孔隙的互連。當(dāng)俯視電路芯片時(shí)(無(wú)論用來(lái)制作這些芯片的具體工藝和掩膜層數(shù)如何),這些模式均可用來(lái)描述各種線路走勢(shì)與通孔的實(shí)際幾何圖形(見(jiàn)文獻(xiàn)[36])。受以上分層電路成功的設(shè)計(jì)方法的激勵(lì),20 世紀(jì) 70 年代以來(lái),數(shù)家公司對(duì)分層制造機(jī)械零件進(jìn)行了嘗試。另外,到 80 年代中葉,幾項(xiàng)美國(guó)政府的研究也對(duì)成立“機(jī)械領(lǐng)域的金屬氧化物半導(dǎo)體執(zhí)行服務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)(MOSIS)”的可能性進(jìn)行了分析。于是,一提到機(jī)械領(lǐng)域的 M()SIS 的前景,人們就往往將它與上文列出的制造工藝聯(lián)系起來(lái)。第一種商用 SFF 技術(shù)——SLA——是伴隨著將 CAD 物體表示成STL。(STereoLithography)文檔格式“.STL。 ”的出現(xiàn)而產(chǎn)生的。 “.STL”文檔是 CAD格式的種變形,它適用于造型時(shí)的分層操作和后續(xù)的實(shí)際 SLA、FDM 或 SLS 機(jī)器上的激光掃描軌跡。足球是圓的嗎?回答取決于你測(cè)量的準(zhǔn)確程度。名義上,它是一個(gè)完美的圓球體,但仔細(xì)觀察起來(lái),它是由大約 20 多塊六邊形塊和一些五邊形塊縫合而組成的曲面體。所以它實(shí)際上是對(duì)數(shù)學(xué)上圓球體的一種近似。類似地, “.STL”文件用來(lái)對(duì) CAD 模型中的邊界曲面進(jìn)行近似,將原曲面分割成相互連接的小三角形,通常稱為分割鑲嵌(tessellation)。每一塊三角形由三個(gè)頂點(diǎn)的x、y、z 坐標(biāo)來(lái)表示,三個(gè)頂點(diǎn)的先后順序符合右手法則,即從物體外部看,以逆時(shí)針?lè)较蚨ǔ鲞@些頂點(diǎn)。同時(shí),對(duì)每個(gè)三角塊的法向也做了規(guī)定。這些分割鑲嵌的小表面儲(chǔ)存南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 3 -在一個(gè)“.STL”文件中。這樣形成的可能包含多至 20 萬(wàn)個(gè)三角塊的文件通過(guò) Internet送往快速成形車間的機(jī)器。圖 4.1 一個(gè)“.STL”文件表示的是一個(gè)分割鑲嵌后的物體。 (a)圖顯示由許多表面面片表示的隱形眼鏡盒。該“.STL”文件所表示的物體隨后被分層,接著用激光掃描來(lái)硬化零件(由Lee Weiss 教授提供) 。如圖 4.1 所示,這種分割鑲嵌的 CAD 模型隨后被分割成類似于一疊撲克牌的層次。對(duì)于 3D 系統(tǒng)公司的機(jī)器而言,這種文件被稱為 SLI 文件或分層文件。盡管其他快速成形方法使用相似的技術(shù),但它們的細(xì)節(jié)和命名卻各有不同。如果對(duì)于一個(gè)假想的足球來(lái)說(shuō),這樣的每一層都應(yīng)該是一個(gè)圓形。但是由于使用這種分割鑲嵌的方法,每一層都不是一個(gè)完美的圓形。由于這種分層技術(shù)沿三角塊邊界分割,因此,每一層圓實(shí)際是由一個(gè)多邊形近似形成的,邊的多少則取決于分割鑲嵌所要求的精確程度。對(duì)于 SLA 機(jī)器而言,首先用激光器固化每層的邊界,然后再填充邊界內(nèi)部。每層的厚度和填充方式則通常隨機(jī)器生產(chǎn)商的不同和用戶的選擇而有所不同。特別是對(duì)于 SLA 和SLS 機(jī)器而言,通常要進(jìn)行一些逐步嘗試才能探索出最令人滿意的結(jié)果。這個(gè)問(wèn)題將在稍后幾節(jié)進(jìn)一步探討。目前, “.STI。 ”格式已成為 SFF 的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文件交換格式。但在很多情況下,此格式也存在一些不足。首先,由于采用分割鑲嵌,文件所占容量很大。其次,它存在著一些冗余度。例如,一方面每塊小三角形都按逆時(shí)針?lè)较蚪o出其三個(gè)頂點(diǎn)的坐標(biāo),以便用右手南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 4 -法則判斷其法向。但同時(shí),習(xí)慣上每塊小三角形的法向矢量也同時(shí)由 STI,另外保存。有時(shí)這兩者會(huì)出現(xiàn)一些不一致性,而且目前還沒(méi)有較好的方法來(lái)解決這一問(wèn)題。正如文獻(xiàn)[32]所述, “.STI。 ”沒(méi)有表達(dá)模型的拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)和連接性,給修補(bǔ)文件中的一些常見(jiàn)錯(cuò)誤帶來(lái)困難,例如,間隙、滲透和額外面片,以及法向不一致。此時(shí),人們不能不去設(shè)法猜測(cè)設(shè)計(jì)人員的原意。于是,一些更通常的數(shù)據(jù)交換格式有時(shí)也用于 SFF中,包括 ACIS 和 IGES。然而,正如文獻(xiàn)[38]所述,在 SFF 中采用這些格式也存在某些問(wèn)題。因此,目前對(duì)文件交換語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行改善的研究正在進(jìn)行。1.2 可供快速成形選用的鑄造方法1.2.1 簡(jiǎn)介一些經(jīng)典的制造工藝教科書,如文獻(xiàn)[11]、[17]、[24]及[43],對(duì)各種鑄造工藝有較詳細(xì)地介紹,例如:·失蠟鑄造;·陶瓷模鑄造;·殼型鑄造;·傳統(tǒng)翻砂鑄造;·壓模鑄造。為避免重復(fù)以上教科書中的內(nèi)容,本節(jié)著重介紹快速成形服務(wù)廠商所應(yīng)用的鑄造方法。應(yīng)用這種方法制造原型的批量以 50~500 較為典型。最主要的市場(chǎng)考慮是鑄造經(jīng)濟(jì)且周期短。然而,如果公差要求較嚴(yán),鑄造出的樣件也許不能成為最終產(chǎn)品。視具體鑄造方法而言,其公差范圍可以達(dá)到從失蠟鑄造的士 75pm 至普通砂模鑄造的±375pm(另參見(jiàn)第2 章)。1.2.2 普通失蠟鑄造正如第 1 章所述,基本的鑄造方法是許多世紀(jì)以前朝鮮和埃及的藝術(shù)家所發(fā)明的。失蠟鑄造由以下工序構(gòu)成(如圖 4.16 所示):(a~c)用于工程或藝術(shù)品的蠟?zāi)P停?d~f)將蠟?zāi)2粩嘟谔沾蓾{中以獲得一定厚度的包殼;(g)將此陶瓷材料包裹的蠟?zāi)<訜幔瑢⑾炄刍牡撞康目琢鞒鲂纬煽諝ぃ?h)把空殼的孔堵住,將金屬熔液從空殼上部澆入;(i)待金屬固化后,打碎外殼,取出鑄件;(j)清理、去毛刺、拋光及其他后置處理。失蠟鑄造這一工藝在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)中用來(lái)制造飛機(jī)零部件時(shí)得到了很大的改進(jìn)。今天,此方法已廣泛用于制造各種產(chǎn)品,如噴氣渦輪發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)葉片及高爾夫球桿的桿頭。圖4.16 的(a~f)示意了由注塑成形制作蠟?zāi)?,再將許多蠟?zāi)U辰映蓸?shù)狀結(jié)構(gòu),然后將此樹(shù)南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 5 -狀模浸入陶瓷溶液中而形成模具的過(guò)程。蠟?zāi)1唤惶娉两诖旨?xì)不同的耐火材料粉漿里,先浸的細(xì)鋯砂粉篩號(hào)細(xì)至 250 號(hào),而后浸的粗硅線石砂粉篩號(hào)粗至 30 號(hào)。帶有涂層的蠟?zāi)T俳揭冶杷猁}與酸固化液中。烘干是在氨氣容器中完成的。下一步則是將涂層烘干固化后的蠟?zāi)V糜?150℃的密封式蒸汽爐中讓蠟熔化并流出,然后將空殼模具在 950℃:的火爐里燒烤 2h,最后將液態(tài)金屬如鋼或鋁澆注入模具內(nèi)。圖 4.16 失蠟鑄造工藝。上圖(a)至(c)形成模型陣列。 (d)至(f)圖顯示沙漿和沙粉形成鑄模外殼。 (g)至(j)圖表示鑄造過(guò)程(引自美國(guó)鋼鑄造者學(xué)會(huì)的文獻(xiàn))總之,現(xiàn)代失蠟鑄造是鑄造工藝中精度最高的一種,這是因?yàn)樽鳛槟改5南災(zāi)J峭ㄟ^(guò)精密機(jī)加工完成的?,F(xiàn)在,失蠟鑄造很容易達(dá)到±75um 的公差。同時(shí),由于鑄造表面已經(jīng)很光滑,不經(jīng)后置處理即可使用。這種工藝的其他優(yōu)點(diǎn)包括:南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 6 -·如果蠟?zāi)1砻嬉呀?jīng)過(guò)手工拋光處理,則最后零件不存在分模線;·具有表面刻紋的蠟?zāi)?梢灾苯赢a(chǎn)生零件所需的表面特征,如高爾夫球桿頭表面的凹痕;·很容易用機(jī)器人使蠟?zāi)V貜?fù)沉浸于粉漿這一過(guò)程自動(dòng)化,從而降低成本; ·有些零件,如渦輪發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的葉片,可以實(shí)現(xiàn)單向凝固,于是可在需要的方向獲得好的機(jī)械性能。1.2.3 陶瓷模鑄造前面介紹的失蠟鑄造的不足之處是每次要將蠟?zāi)H刍?。陶瓷模鑄造的優(yōu)點(diǎn)為利用可重用的副母模來(lái)取代每次要被熔化的蠟?zāi)?。這種新型鑄造方法的精度和成本很大程度取決于第 1 步中的母模制作。具體的五個(gè)步驟如下:·第 1 步,陽(yáng)模:用 SI。A 或機(jī)加工制作最原始的母模?!さ?2 步,陰模:在陽(yáng)模的周圍用高度穩(wěn)定的樹(shù)脂產(chǎn)生一層殼體。這層殼可以分開(kāi)以提供一條分模線。·第 3 步,陽(yáng)模:用以上生成的陰模殼和橡膠來(lái)制作可重用的副母模?!さ?4 步,陰模:在以上陽(yáng)模的基礎(chǔ)上生成可破壞性的陶瓷模具?!さ?5 步,零件:澆注金屬溶液于以上制作的陶瓷模具內(nèi),待金屬固化后打破陶瓷模具,取出鑄件并去掉澆注口及毛刺。SLA 可用來(lái)制作第 1 步中的原始母模,也可用數(shù)控加工來(lái)銑削青銅、黃銅或鋼材制作原始母模。雖然陶瓷模鑄造可從以上過(guò)程的第 3 步開(kāi)始,但這樣有可能損壞原始母模,特別是在用 SLA 來(lái)制作原始母模的情況下。另外,從提高生產(chǎn)率的角度來(lái)講,通常在第3 步制作許多橡膠母模,所有這些橡膠模都可以從第 2 步的樹(shù)脂陰模獲得??焖俪尚畏?wù)商喜歡用硬樹(shù)脂來(lái)制作第 2 步中的陰模,這是因?yàn)檫@種樹(shù)脂有較好的尺寸穩(wěn)定性。要注意的是,一般要準(zhǔn)備兩個(gè)半邊的樹(shù)脂模,以便將該殼狀陰模沿分模線分開(kāi)。一旦這種硬的樹(shù)脂模固化后,再在第 3 步中用膠糊狀橡膠填充其中,硬化后生成橡膠陽(yáng)模。該橡膠陽(yáng)??稍谒€是軟化狀時(shí)從樹(shù)脂模里拔出,因此設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)不需要考慮拔模斜度的問(wèn)題。這種橡膠材料對(duì)較簡(jiǎn)陋鑄造車間而言較為理想。第 4 步中的陰模是由特定等級(jí)的氧化鋁砂粉與粘合劑(乙基硅酸鹽)和異丙基酒精溶液混合而形成的。這種砂粉液漿不斷澆到第 3 步的橡膠模上。一旦這層砂漿干固后,將兩個(gè)半干固的陰模(陶瓷模)合攏,然后將它們置入 950℃爐火中燒烤以增加其強(qiáng)度。接著即南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 7 -可將金屬鋁溶液澆注于其中,開(kāi)始鑄造零件。待金屬熔液固化后,打破陶瓷模,清理和去除毛刺。盡管開(kāi)模線會(huì)造成一些問(wèn)題,但一般可獲得高至±125~±375um 的精度。1.2.4 殼模鑄造另一種高精度鑄造就是殼模鑄造(shell molding)。金屬母模先被加熱到200~240C,然后將大約 5~1 5mm 的一層砂粉噴涂于該熱金屬模表面。此砂漿拌有樹(shù)脂漿,以保證它緊貼在金屬型上。另外,以酚醛樹(shù)脂與六甲撐四胺添加劑混合加入硅砂中,以確保噴涂砂粉的熱固性。接下來(lái)是讓殼模固化、拔開(kāi)并燒烤殼模,這一過(guò)程通常能保證非常好的精度。一旦去除殼模鑄造完成,精度能達(dá)到±75um。1.2.5 傳統(tǒng)翻砂鑄造較原始和便宜的一種鑄造則是以木頭和石膏為母模的翻砂鑄造。先將母模周圍分別埋滿并充實(shí)砂土,并加入澆口與冒口。此方法通??蛇_(dá)到±375pm 的精度。這種方法的最新進(jìn)展包括:(1)高壓振壓法。在該方法中,機(jī)械活塞給砂土施加振擠 400psi(2.76MPa)的壓力,以產(chǎn)生更結(jié)實(shí)與逼近的砂一模界面,從而獲得較高的精度。(2)二氧化碳吹模法。在這種工藝中,砂與模之間的界面是由一層約 12mm 厚的特別材料制成的。該材料是由難熔的鋯石或非常細(xì)的二氧化硅與以 6 9,6 的硅酸鈉為粘接劑混合而成。該層材料再通過(guò)吹入二氧化碳來(lái)固化。1.2.6 壓模鑄造壓模鑄造主要是通過(guò)高壓將熱鋅溶液注入永久性的鋼模具而完成的。該工藝發(fā)展至今天,其模具幾乎全由 3 或 5 軸加工中心數(shù)控加工而成。盡管壓模鑄造的模具成本較高,但可獲得光滑的鑄造表面,其精度通常能達(dá)到土75um。然而,由于模具成本較高,壓模鑄造嚴(yán)格而言并不屬于快速原型制造的范圍。因此,該工藝大多用于大批生產(chǎn)的汽車或其他消費(fèi)品中的較小零部件。由于低熔點(diǎn)金屬如鋅合金的使用,鑄件的強(qiáng)度只能算中等。現(xiàn)在,人們一般喜歡用注塑成形(見(jiàn)第 8 章)來(lái)代替壓模鑄造。1.3 快速成形中的機(jī)加工方法1.3.1 簡(jiǎn)介第 7 章將詳細(xì)討論一般的機(jī)加工過(guò)程及其原理。本節(jié)著重介紹將 CNC 加工用于快速原南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 8 -型制造的 CAD/CAM 軟件的進(jìn)展。這種軟件的一個(gè)目的是要實(shí)現(xiàn) CAD 與制造之間的完全自動(dòng)化,另一個(gè)目的則是盡量減少很有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的機(jī)械工人的手工操作,如工藝規(guī)劃和工夾具設(shè)計(jì)與制造。CyberCut 是一種基于 Internet.的 CNC 機(jī)加工嘗試性制造試驗(yàn)平臺(tái)。它提供的服務(wù)允許 Internet 客戶端的設(shè)計(jì)者在對(duì)機(jī)械零部件造型后,將相關(guān)文件傳送到遠(yuǎn)程服務(wù)器上,以便在開(kāi)放結(jié)構(gòu) CNC 機(jī)床上進(jìn)行工藝規(guī)劃及制造。快速刀具軌跡生成、新型夾具裝置以及基于傳感器的高精度加工技術(shù),可以讓原始設(shè)計(jì)人員很快獲得高強(qiáng)度和高精度的零部件。1.3.2 WebCAD:位于 Internet 客戶端的面向機(jī)加工的設(shè)計(jì)在這里,一個(gè)關(guān)鍵的概念就是用“通曉工藝”的 CAD 工具來(lái)進(jìn)行零件設(shè)計(jì),這種原型生成系統(tǒng)稱為 WebCAD。SUN 公司的 JavaTM 是一種可移植、面向?qū)ο蟮姆€(wěn)健編程語(yǔ)言(類似 C++),將它用于該試驗(yàn)平臺(tái)以服務(wù)小型應(yīng)用場(chǎng)合。該平臺(tái)的圖形用戶界面是采用第 3章介紹的析構(gòu)實(shí)體幾何(DSG)的基于 2.5 維特征的設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)。在這種實(shí)體幾何建模過(guò)程中,用戶通常開(kāi)始于一塊長(zhǎng)方體,然后逐步去除一塊一塊的材料。與之相反,傳統(tǒng)的構(gòu)造實(shí)體幾何(CSG)則由零開(kāi)始逐步往上添加一塊一塊的形體。在析構(gòu)實(shí)體幾何方法中,用戶不能隨意去除不同形狀的材料,而是必須一個(gè)特征一個(gè)特征地去除。這些特征一般為槽、盲孔及通孔。WebCAD 還包括一個(gè)能確認(rèn)可加工性的專家系統(tǒng)。正如圖 4.17 所示,該圖上面部分表示用戶由這些專家系統(tǒng)內(nèi)的規(guī)則所引導(dǎo)。例如,在一個(gè)通孔周圍設(shè)置一個(gè)“禁區(qū)”以避免通孔太靠近邊緣。當(dāng)設(shè)計(jì)人員違反了這一規(guī)則時(shí),自動(dòng)彈出窗口會(huì)提示適當(dāng)?shù)难a(bǔ)救辦法,例如,將通孔往形體里面移近一點(diǎn)——一般可通過(guò)減少其直徑來(lái)完成。webCAD 還采用了 WYSlWYG 環(huán)境(“你所看到的即是你所得到的”英語(yǔ)縮寫——譯者注),并提供明確的切削刀具及拐角半徑以供選擇。值本書寫作之時(shí),研究者們還在對(duì)這個(gè)系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行改進(jìn),包括添加自由表面編輯造型以及根據(jù)零件最終加工位置進(jìn)行刀具選擇。之所以采用 DSG 來(lái)引導(dǎo)用戶進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)是因?yàn)樗x用的那些特征可以與標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的 CNC 銑削工藝相對(duì)應(yīng)。這一情形正類似于考慮到文件的“可打印性”時(shí),文字處理軟件與打印機(jī)之間的關(guān)系。雖然人們很容易批評(píng)由于使用 DSG 而帶來(lái)的給用戶設(shè)計(jì)零件時(shí)的一些限制,但 DSG 設(shè)計(jì)環(huán)境的主要優(yōu)點(diǎn)是保證和改善設(shè)計(jì)的可加工性。與傳統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)方法相比,這種設(shè)計(jì)的可加工性要更確定些,因?yàn)閭鹘y(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)方法主要依靠無(wú)約束的設(shè)計(jì),同時(shí),設(shè)計(jì)、工藝規(guī)劃與制造三者之間聯(lián)系較松散。經(jīng)驗(yàn)證明,雖然設(shè)計(jì)人員最初感到有些約束,但南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 9 -能加工出“正確”的零件這一點(diǎn)很快證明這個(gè)方法具有足夠的吸引力。1.3.3 位于 Internet 服務(wù)端的工藝規(guī)劃一旦用戶設(shè)計(jì)完成后,零件造型的電子文件可通過(guò) Internet 送給遠(yuǎn)程服務(wù)端的工藝規(guī)劃模塊。自動(dòng)化軟件將該設(shè)計(jì)讀入,并確定加工順序、刀具軌跡、切削參數(shù)等。宏規(guī)劃將各特征進(jìn)行排序并針對(duì)給定夾具生成機(jī)加工準(zhǔn)備工序。cyberCut 目前的宏規(guī)劃模塊具有特征識(shí)別能力,它能從 2.5 維的實(shí)體幾何中提取體積特征。該模塊的輸出不僅僅是一組加工特征,它還提供其他一些很豐富的數(shù)據(jù)結(jié)構(gòu),如特征與特征之間的聯(lián)系。宏規(guī)劃模塊的一個(gè)最新進(jìn)展是它能識(shí)別并處理自由表面。微規(guī)劃與刀具軌跡規(guī)劃模塊將 DSG 形體分解成具體的刀具運(yùn)動(dòng)。打個(gè)比方來(lái)講,這就像庭院里用割草機(jī)割草的過(guò)程一樣:每一塊草皮由某一直徑的刀具將其割去,每次行程之間的覆蓋量則由想獲得的偏差與表面光滑度來(lái)決定。槽的邊角也許會(huì)用到特別的刀具(正如草坪的邊角一樣)。自由表面必須分割成一塊一塊的平面和斜面。其中的平面由投影看上去像螺旋的刀具軌跡產(chǎn)生,而斜面則由切片狀的刀具軌跡生成。這樣不僅能產(chǎn)生較均勻一致的刀具軌跡,同時(shí)也只需中等復(fù)雜的計(jì)算難度。以上分割目的在于,在給定的公差、光滑度及機(jī)床安全性的條件下,優(yōu)化加工時(shí)間。同時(shí),每道工序的加工時(shí)間也可估算出來(lái),這些數(shù)據(jù)反饋給設(shè)計(jì)人員后,可使他們進(jìn)行早期機(jī)加工成本估計(jì)。1.3.4 位于 Internet 服務(wù)端的銑削加工制造最后,一組數(shù)控指令在開(kāi)放式結(jié)構(gòu)的數(shù)控加工中心上實(shí)現(xiàn)加工(與之相比,如果服務(wù)平臺(tái)感覺(jué)到 SFF 會(huì)更好地服務(wù)用戶,CyberCut 就接通 FDM 機(jī)器)。這里采用的機(jī)床是由開(kāi)放式結(jié)構(gòu)控制的可實(shí)現(xiàn)復(fù)雜刀具軌跡的加工中心。一個(gè)具體的實(shí)例則是該機(jī)器的插補(bǔ)器可執(zhí)行由 NURBS(非均勻有理 B 樣條)表示的自由軌跡。這種復(fù)雜刀具軌跡的加工能力,可使傳統(tǒng)的機(jī)加工制造出更為復(fù)雜的表面,因此,它使得數(shù)控加工能與 SFF 技術(shù)在復(fù)雜曲面快速成形方面繼續(xù)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。關(guān)于開(kāi)放式結(jié)構(gòu)機(jī)床的詳細(xì)情況則留在第 7 章介紹機(jī)加工時(shí)南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 10 -再討論。圖 4.17 CyberCut 課題:設(shè)計(jì)、規(guī)劃與制造集成南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 1 -SOUD FREEFORM FABRICATION ISFF) AND RAPID PROTOTYPING1.1 SOUD FREEFORM FABRICATION ISFF)METHODSSeveral manufacturing processes are available to make the important transition from computer aided design(CAD)to a prototype part.Several new technologies began to make their appearance after 1987.In that year,stereolithography (SLA) was first introduced bv 3D Systems Inc. ,and over the next five years several rival methods also appeared.TllS created the family of processes known as solid freeform fabrication fSFFl.As with most new technologies at the beginning of the“market adoption S.shaped curves”in Chapter 2.the SFF domain iS accompanied by a rela.tive amount of advertising“hype. ”SFF processes are sometimes described as:·Parts on demand·From arttopart·Desktop manufacturing·Rapid prototypingAt the time of this writing,stereolithography (SLA),selective laser sintering (SLS),fused deposition modeling(FDM),and layered object modeling(LOM) are being used on a day-to-day basis by commercial prototyping companies.The three-dimensional(3 一 D)printing process in cornstarch,plastic,and ceramics is also being used commercially.The methods lower on the list show promise but do not seem to be in great use by third party prototyping houses to make their daily income.Casting is a special case.It is still used to make one—of-a—kind prototypes.Furthermore,for batch runs in the 10 to 500 category it is a very cost effective method to use once an original mold has been made by a process such as stereolithography.Machining isalso used to make one…of a kind or several prototypes.1.1.1 Summary of SFF and Rapid Prototyping ProcessesIn daily commercial use:·Stereolithography (SLA)·Selective laser sintering (SI S)·Laminated object modeling (LOM)南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 2 -·Fused deposition modeling (FDM)More at the research and development(R&D)stage:·3-D printing in cornstarch,plastic,or ceramic·3-D printing with plastics followed by planarization using machining·Solid ground curing(similar to SLA)·Shape deposition modeling ra combination of addition and subtraction) Non-SFF(traditional):·Machining·CastingComparisons done in the early 1990s by the Chrysler Corporation revealed that the SLA process was ahead of its rival nontraditional prototyping methods in terms of cost and accuracy(these studies excluded an evaluation of machining and casting).Following the technical descriptions in this chapter.a(chǎn)dditional figures and tables are thus included to compare these costs and accuracies.Over the last decade, SLA has further emerged as the most used SFF process,especially for the generation of the master patterns for casting and injection molding.At the time of this writing,SLS ,F(xiàn)DM.a(chǎn)nd LOM have the most visibility after SLA.1.1.2 The History of SFF MethodsDuring the late 1970s,Mead and Conway(1980)created the groundwork for the fast prototyping of very large scale integrated(VLSll circuits.Designers were encour.a(chǎn)ged to think in terms of five two-dimensional(2.D)patterns .These patterns defined three stacked interconnection layers on a metal.oxide . semiconductor fMOSl wafer and their mutual connections through holes.The patterns descry bed the actual geometrv of the connection runs and via holes that one would see when looking down onto the circuit chip,regardless of the exact process and number of masking steps that were used to implement the chip(see MOSIS,2000).Inspired by this success,beginning in the 1970s,several companies tried to create layered manufacturing for mechanical parts.AISO by the mid.1980s,severa U.S.government studies analyzed the possibilities of a“mechanical MOSIS”(Man.ufacturing Studies Board,1990 ;Bouldin,1994;NSF workshop I,1994,and II,1995).The prospects for a mechanical MOSIS were thus frequently linked to the fabrication processes in the lists 南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 3 -mentioned(Ashley,1991,1998;Heller ,1991;Kruth,1991;Woo ,1992,1993;Au and Wright,1993 ;Kochan,1993;Kai,1994;UCLA,1994;Wleiss and Prinz,1995;Cohen et a1. ,1995;Dutta,1995;Jacobs ,1992,1996;Beaman et a1. ,1997; Kumar et a1. ,1998;Sachs et a1. ,2000).The introduction of the first commercial SFF technology--stereolithography--was accompanied by the advent of the STereoLithography (.STL)representation of a CAD obiect. “.STU’is a modified CAD format that suits a subsequent slicing oper.a(chǎn)ction and the“downstream”laser.scanning paths on a physical SLA .FDM.or SLS machine.Is a soccer ball round? The answer depends on how carefully the balIis meas.ured .Nominally,it is a perfect sphere.However.on closer inspection.the leather is sewn together from about 20 little hexagonal patches and a few pentagonal patches to create the curvature.In reality it is an approximation to a sphere.Likewise.the“.STL’’format approximates the boundary surfaces of a CAD model by breaking it down into interconnected small triangles--a process called tes.sellation.Each triangle is represented by the x/y/z coordinates of each of its three ver.tices,enumerated by the right.hand rule——that is.Counterclockwise (ccw) order as viewed from the outside of the bodv The vector normal to the surfaee of each triangle is also specified.1his tessellated surface is stored as an“.STL file. ”this file.Perhaps containing up to 200,000 triangles,is sent over the Internet to a prototyping shop.As shown in Figure 4.1.this tessellated CAD model is then sliced like a stack of playing cards.For 3D Systems’machines this is known as the SLI or sliced file.Other rapid prototyping machines use the slicing technique but have their own file creation details and names.Each slice for the imaginary soccer ball will thus be a circle.However.because of the tessellation procedure it will not be a perfect circle.The slicing action cuts through the triangles on the boundary.Thus,each circular slice (or disc will actually be a multisided polygon running inside the“bounding circle. ”The number of sides on this inner polygon is of course related to how finely divided the original tessellation was made.Inside the SLA machine.the laser first creates the outer boundary of each slice and then“weaves”across each slice in a hatching pattern to create the layer.The number of slices and the style of the weaving pattern are chosen by each rapid pro.Totyping shop.Especially for SLA and SLS a certain amount of trial and error.Or craftspersonship,begins to play a role 南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 4 -at this stage.This is reviewed in more detailover the next few pages.“.STL, ’is now the standard exchange format for SFF processes.However.it is inadequate for many reasons.First,the files are large due to the tessellation method.Second.there are redundancies in the“.STL'’format.0ne example of redundancy is as follows:the triangles are represented by the“counterclockwise rule”so that it is clear in which direction the outer-surface normal acts.However.it has also become customary to specify the surface vector as well.Inconsistency can be introduced as a result of this redundancy, and no rules exist for resolving it.McMains (1996)describes how“.STL'’does not capture topology or connectivity, making it difficult to fix some of the common errors found in files—such as cracks,penetrating or extraneous faces,and inconsistent surface normals —without resorting to guessing the designer’s original intent. More general digital interchange formats have also been used with SFlF These include ACIS(1993)and IGES (Heller,1991).However ,as described in NSF(1995),problems arise with these formats,too One aspect of ongoing research is thus to improve this representation language (McMains et a1. ,1998).南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 5 -1.2 CASTING METHODS FOR RAPID PROTOTYPING1.2.1 IntroductionThe classic manufacturing texts by DeGarmo and associates(1997),Kalpakjian (1997),Schey (1999),and Groover (1999)are remarkably comprehensive in their coverage of the casting process.The several methods of casting include:·Lost-wax investment casting·Ceramic-mold investment casting·Shell molding·Conventional sand molding·Die castingRather than duplicate the material found in other books, this section focuses on casting as it is done by rapid prototyping companies.Batch sizes from 50 to 500 are typical.The key market strategy is that casting is cheap and fast.However,it may not be the choice for the final product because of its tolerances.Depending on the type of casting chosen,the tolerances vary from+/一 75 microns(0.003 inch)for lost-wax processes to+/一 375 microns(0.015 inch)for standard sand castings(also see Chapter 2).1.2.2 Lost·Wax Investment CastingAs mentioned in Chapter 1.the fundamentals of casting were invented by Korean and Egyptian artists many centuries ago.The following steps are known as the lost-wax investment cas“ng process(Figure 4.16) :(a—c)a master pattern of an engineering or art object is first carved from wax;(d-f)it is surrounded by a ceramic slurry that soon sets into solid around the wax;(g)the wax is melted out through a hole in the bottom,leaving a hollow cavity;(h)this hole is plugged,and liquid metal is poured into the open cavity from the top;(i)after a while,the metal solidifies and the ceramic shell can be broken away to get the part;(j)some cleaning,deburring ,and polishing are needed before the object is finished.The process was greatly improved and made more accurate during World Warn II for aeroengine components.Today it is used for products such as jet engine turbine blades and golf club heads.On the top line of Figure 4.16.wax patterns are formed from injection molds, assembled on treelike forms,and then treated with the slurry .南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 6 -Alternate layers of fine refractory slip (zircon flour at 250 sieve or mesh size) are applied,followed by a thicker stucco layer( sillimanite at 30 sieve or mesh size).The coated components are dipped in fluidized beds that contain isopropyl silicate and liquid acid hardener.Drying takes place in ammonia gas.The next step is to eliminate the wax in a steam autoclave at 150。C,fire the mold for 2 hours at 950。C,then pour in the liquid steel or aluminum.In summary, the modern lost-wax method has one of the best tolerances in the casting family because the original wax patterns are made in nicely machined molds Today, tolerances of+/-75 microns r0.003 inch)are readily obtainable.Also the as—cast surface is relatively smooth and usable for the same reason.0ther advantages include :Figure 4.16 The lost—Wax investment casting process.Upper diagrams (a) through(C) lead to the tree of Wax master patterns . Middle diagrams show the slurry and stucco being applied.Lower 南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 7 -diagram shows the casting (adapted from literature of the Steel Founders ’Society ofAmerica).·No parting lines if the wax original is hand finished.·Waxes with surface texture can give direct features such as the dimples on aGolf club. ‘·Automation of the slurry dipping is possible using robots,thereby reducingcosts.·Products such as turbine blades can be unidirectionally solidified,giving goodmechanical properties in the growing direction.1.2.3 Ceramic-Mold Investment Casting ProceduresThe snag about the previous method is that the wax pattern is destroyed.The ceramic-mold investment casting technique therefore employs reusable submaster patterns in place of the expendable wax patterns.This version of investment casting ideally involves five steps to make it efficient and to retain,as much as possible,the fine care and expense that go into creating the original master positive in Step 1.The steps are as follows:·Step 1.Positive:make an original master pattern with stereolithography or machining. ·Step 2.Negative:create a shell around the master with highly stable resin.A negative space is created around the original positive master pattern.This shell can be pulled apart to give a parting line.·Step 3.Positive:create reusable submaster rubbery molds from the shells .·Step 4.Negative:create the destroyable slurry/ceramic molds.·Step 5.Positive:pour metal into the ceramic molds,which are then broken apart to get the components ,which must then be degated and deburred .SLA can be used to make the original master pattern,or a CNC machine can be used to mill the master from brass,bronze,or steel.Of course,the process can start at Step 3,but this might damage the original master,especially if it is SLA.Also .to get high productivity in the factory ,it is preferable to have many molds at Step 3.All of which can be made from the stable resin negative in Step 2.Prototyping companies like to use the hard resin to fabricate the negative in Step 2,because the resin has good dimensional stability.Note that it is typical to have two resin molds, one for each side of the casting,separable by a parting line.南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 8 -Once the hard resin shells have set,they can be filled with a slurry gel that solidifies to a hard“rubbery positive”for Step 3.111is intermediate submaster mold can be stripped away from the resin shells while it is still“rubbery. ”the material is ideal for the rather rough handling environments of a foundry and the rubbery properties mean that no draft angles are needed for stripping these submasters off the resin shells.The Step 4 negative mold is made from a graded aluminosilicate with a liquid binder(ethyl silicate)and isopropyl alcoh01.This is poured around the submasters from Step 3.Once the slurry has set,the two ceramic halves are joined to create the inner cavity ,the slurry is fired at 950。C to give it strength, and the casting process. say with molten aluminum,can begin. After solidification,the component is broken out of the ceramic,cleaned up,and deburred . The parting line can cause problems,but in general,good accuracy is obtained:+/-125 to 375 microns(+/-0.005 to 0.015 inch).1.2.4 Shell MoldingAn alternative form of high—accuracy casting is shell molding.Metal pattern plates are first heated to 200。C to 240。C.A thin wall of sand,5 to 15 millimeters f0.25 to 0.75 inch)thick,is then sprayed over the plates.The sand is resin.coated to ensure adhesion to the metal plate.Phenolic resins, with hexamethylene -tetramine additives,are combined with the silica to ensure rigid thermosetting of the sprayed sand."the next steps are to cure,strip,and dry the sand molds ,which are comparably very accurate for casting.Ones the excess sand is removed and casting is finished,accuracies can be as low as+/一 75 microns f0.003 inch).1.2.5 Conventional Sand MoldingThe cruder,cheaper version of casting called sand casting.A sand impression starting with wooden or plaster patterns is made around the pattern with gates and risers for the poured metal.This gives tolerances of+/一 375 microns(0.015 inch) Newer developments include:1.A high.pressure iolt.a(chǎn)nd-squeeze method:Here mechanical plungers push the sand against the mold at a jolt of 400 psi .This gives a tighter fit of the sand against the pattern and hence better tolerances after casting.2.Carbon dioxide block molding:Here the interfacing between the sand and the pattern is made up of a special material about 12 millimeters(0.5 inch)thick.It is a refractory mix of 南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 9 -zircon or very fine silica.bonded with 6%sodium silicate,which is then hardened by the passage of carbon dioxide.1.2.6 Die CastingDie casting is predominantly done by the high—pressure injection of hot zinc into a permanent steel die.Today ,the die or mold for this type of casting is almost certain to be milled on a three. or five.a(chǎn)xis machine t001.Die costs are relatively high.but smooth components are produced with accuracies in the range of+/-75 microns(0.003 inch).However ,these high costs for the permanent molds mean that die casting does not really fit into the rapid prototyping family.It is mostly used for large-batch runs of small parts for automobiles or consumer products.Since low melting point materials such as zinc alloys are used in the process,component strengths are relatively modest.Today , the injection molding of plastics(Chapter 8)is often preferred over zinc die casting.1.3 MACHINING METHODS FOR RAPID PROTOTYPlNG1.3.1 OverviewChapter 7 deals with the generalized machining operation including the mechanics of the process.This chapter focuses on advances in CAD,CAM software that allow CNC machining to be more of a“turnkey rapid prototyping”process.One goal is to fully automate the links between CAD and fabrication.Another goal is to minimize the intensely hands-on craft operations(e.g. ,process planning and fixturing )that demand the services of a skilled machinist.CyberCut0M is an Internet.based experimental fabrication test bed for CNC machining.The service allows client designers on the Internet to create mechanical components and submit appropriate files to a remote server for process planning and fabrication on an open.a(chǎn)rchitecture CNC machine t001.Rapid tool-path planning.Novel fixturing devices ,and sensor-based precision machining techniques allow the original designer to quickly obtain a high-strength, good—tolerance component (Smith and Wright,1996).1.3.2 WebCAD :Design for Machining on the Internet”O(jiān)n the Client 南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 10 -SideA key idea is to use a“process aware”CAD tool during the design of the part.This prototype system is called WebCAD (Kim et a1. ,1999).Sun Microsystems’Java a portable,object—oriented,robust programming language similar to C++—is being used as a framework for serving mini.a(chǎn)pplications .The GUI is a 2.5D feature.based。design system that uses the destructive solid geometry(DSG)idea introduced in the last chapter ( Cutkosky and Tenenbaum ,1990;Sarma and Wright,1996).Recall that the user starts out with a prismatic stock and removes primitives or “chunks” of material.By contrast,conventional constructive solid geometry(CSG)means building up a part incrementally from“nothingness~’’In the “destructive” paradigm.instead of allowing arbitrary removal,the user is also constrained to removing certain shapes of material,referred to as features.These features take the form of pockets,blind holes,and through.holes.WebCAD also contains an expert system capturing rules for machinability.At the top of Figure 4.17 .the designer is shown being guided by these rules.For example.A ‘‘forbidden zone” is imposed around a through-hole feature to prevent it from being designed too close to an edge.In the event that the designer violates a rule,a “pop.Up” window advises on an appropriate remedy by moving the hole further into the block--typically bv its radius dimension.WebCAD also uses aⅥr、 , SI、VYG what you see is what you get”)environment,with explicit cutting tool selection and visible comer radii on pockets.At the time of this writing,further improvements also include freeform is face editing and selection of different cutting tool sets depending on final fabrication location(Kim,2000) .The rationale for imposing destructive features upon the designer is that each of these features can readily be mapped to a standard CNC milling process.The scheme thus resembles the interaction between a word processor and a printer regarding the“printability”of the document.It is easy to criticize that the restriction to DSG limits the set of parts that can be designed.However.the key advantage of this design environment is that the design-to-manufacture process is more deterministic than conventional methods,which rely on unconstrained design and on looser links between design,planning,and fabrication.Experience shows that designers are somewhat concerned at first that they are 南通大學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)附錄(英文資料翻譯)- 11 -constrained;however ,the opportunity to be provided with the correct part very quickly proves to be attractive.1.3.3 Planning on the Server SideWizen the client’s design is finished,theinternet to a process planner residing on resulting geometry can be sent over the a remote server.An automated software pipeline takes the geometry a
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