704 多功能行李箱的設計（有cad圖+三維圖）
704 多功能行李箱的設計（有cad圖+三維圖）,704,多功能行李箱的設計（有cad圖+三維圖）,多功能,行李箱,設計,cad,三維
LATHES
The basic machines that are designed primarily to do turning, facing and boring are called lathes. Very little turning is done on other types of machine tools, and nine can do it with equal facility. Because lathe can do boring, facing, drilling, and reaming in addition to turning, their versatility permits several operations to be performed with a single setup of the workpiece. This accounts for the fact that lathes of various types are more widely used in manufacturing than any other machine tool.
Lathes in various forms have existed for more than two thousand years. Modem lathes date from about 1797, when Henry Maudsley developed one with a leadscrew. It provided controlled, mechanical feed of the tool. This ingenious Englishman also developed a change-gear system that could connect the motions of the spindle and leadscrew and thus enable threads to be cut.
Lathe Construction. The essential components of a lathe are depicted in the block diagram of Fig.15-1.These are the bed, headstock assembly, tailstock assembly, carriage assembly, quick-change gear box, and the leadscrew and feed rod.
The bed is the backbone of a lathe. It is usually made of well-normalized or aged gray or nodular cast iron and provides a heavy, rigid frame on which all the other basic components are mounted. Two sets of parallel, longitudinal ways, inner and outer, are contained on the bed, usually on the upper side. Some makers use an inverted V-shape for all four ways, whereas others utilize one inverted V and one flat way in one or both sets. Because several other components are mounted and/or move on the ways they must be made with precision to assure accuracy of alignment. Similarly, proper precaution should be taken in operating a lathe to assure that the ways are not damaged. Any inaccuracy in them usually means that the accuracy of the entire lathe is destroyed. The ways on most modern lathes are surface hardened to offer greater resistance to wear and abrasion.
The headstock is mounted in a fixed position on the inner ways at one end of the lathe bed. It provides a powered means of rotating the work at various speeds. It consists, essentially, of a hollow spindle, mounted in accurate bearings, and a set of transmission gears---similar to a truck transmission---through which the spindle can be rotated at a number of speeds. Most lathes provide from eight to eighteen speeds, usually in a geometric ratio, and on modern lathes all the speeds can be obtained merely by moving from two to four levers. An increasing trend is to provide a continuously variable speed range through electrical or mechanical drives.
Because the accuracy of a lathe is greatly dependent on the spindle, it is of heavy construction and mounted in heavy bearings, usually preloaded tapered roller or ball types. A longitudinal hole extends through the spindle so that long bar stock can be fed through it. The size of this hole is an important size dimension of a lathe because it determines the maximum size of bar stock that can be machined when the material must be fed through the spindle.
The inner end of the spindle protrudes from the gear box and contains a means for mounting various types of chucks, face plates, and dog plates on it. Whereas small lathes often employ a threaded section to which the chucks are screwed, most large lathes utilize either cam-lock or key-drive taper noses. These provide a large-diameter taper that assures the accurate alignment of the chuck, and a mechanism that permits the chuck or face plate to be locked or unlocked in position without the necessity of having to rotate these heavy attachments.
Power is supplied to the spindle by means of an electric motor through a V-belt or silent-chain drive. Most modern lathes have motors of from 5 to 15 horsepower to provide adequate power for carbide and ceramic tools at their high cutting speeds.
The tailstock assembly consists, essentially, of three parts. A lower casting fits on the inner ways of the bed and can slide longitudinally thereon, with a means for clamping the entire assembly in any desired location. An upper casting fits on the lower one and can be moved transversely upon it on some type of keyed ways. This transverse motion permits aligning the tailstock and headstock spindles and provides a method of turning tapers. The third major component of the assembly is the tailstock quill. This is a hollow steel cylinder, usually about 2 to 3 inches in diameter, that can be moved several inches longitudinally in and out of the upper casting by means of a handwheel and screw. The open end of the quill hole terminates in a Morse taper in which a lathe center, or various tools such as drills, can be held. A graduated scale, several inches in length, usually is engraved on the outside of the quill to aid in controlling its motion in and out of the upper casting. A locking device permits clamping the quill in any desired position.
The carriage assembly provides the means for mounting and moving cutting tools. The carriage is a relatively flat H-shaped casting that rests and moves on the outer set of ways on the bed. The transverse bar of the carriage contains ways on which the cross slide is mounted and can be moved by means of a feed screw that is controlled by a small handwheel and a graduated dial. Through the cross slide a means is provided for moving the lathe tool in the direction normal to the axis of rotation of the work.
On most lathes the tool post actually is mounted on a compound rest. This consists of a base, which is mounted on the cross slide so that it can be pivoted about a vertical axis, and an upper casting. The upper casting is mounted on ways on this base so that it can be moved back and forth and controlled by means of a short lead screw operated by a handwheel and a calibrated dial.
Manual and powered motion for the carriage, and powered motion for the cross slide, is provided by mechanisms within the apron, attached to the front of the carriage. Manual movement of the carriage along the bed is effected by turning a handwheel on the front of the apron, which is geared to a pinion on the back side. This pinion engages a rack that is attached beneath the upper front edge of the bed in an inverted position.
To impart powered movement to the carriage and cross slide, a rotating feed rod is provided. The feed rod, which contains a keyway throughout most of its length, passes through the two reversing bevel pinions and is keyed to them. Either pinion can be brought into mesh with a mating bevel gear by means of the reversing lever on the front of the apron and thus provide “forward” or “reverse” power to the carriage. Suitable clutches connect either the rack pinion or the cross-slide screw to provide longitudinal motion of the carriage or transverse motion of cross slide.
For cutting threads, a second means of longitudinal drive is provided by a lead screw. Whereas motion of the carriage when driven by the feed-rod mechanism takes place through a friction clutch in which slippage is possible, motion through the lead screw is by a direct, mechanical connection between the apron and the lead screw. This is achieved by a split nut. By means of a clamping lever on the front of the apron, the split nut can be closed around the lead screw. With the split nut closed, the carriage is moved along the lead screw by direct drive without possibility of slippage.
Modern lathes have a quick-change gear box. The input end of this gear box is driven from the lathe spindle by means of suitable gearing. The output end of the gear box is connected to the feed rod and lead screw. Thus, through this gear train, leading from the spindle to the quick-change gear box, thence to the lead screw and feed rod, and then to the carriage, the cutting tool can be made to move a specific distance, either longitudinally or transversely, for each revolution of the spindle. A typical lathe provides, through the feed rod, forty-eight feeds ranging from 0.002 inch to 0.118 inch per revolution of the spindle, and, through the lead screw, leads for cutting forty-eight different threads from 1.5 to 92 per inch. On some older and some cheaper lathes, one or two gears in the gear train between the spindle and the change gear box must be changed in order to obtain a full range of threads and feeds.
CUTTING TOOL
Shape of cutting tools, particularly the angles, and tool material are very important factors. The purpose of this unit is to introduce the cutting tool geometry and tool materials.
Cutting Tool Geometry
Angles determine greatly not only tool life but finish quality as well. General principles upon which cutting tool angles are based do not depend on the particular tool. Basically, grinding wheel are being designed. Since, however, the lathe (turning) tool, depicted in Fig.14-1, might be easiest to visualize, its geometry is discussed.
Tool features have been identified by many names. The technical literature is full of confusing terminology. Thus in the attempt to clear up existing disorganized conceptions and nomenclature, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers published ASA Standard B5-22-1950. what follows is based on it.
A single-point tool is a cutting tool having one face and one continuous cutting edge. Tool angles identified in Fig. 14-2 are as follows: (1) Back-rake angle, (2) Side-rake angle, (3) End-relief angle (4) End-relief angle (5) Side-relief angle (6) End-cutting-edge angle, (7) Side-cutting-edge angle, (8) Nose angle, (9) Nose radius.
Tool angle 1, on front view, is the back-rake angle. It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the shank in a longitudinal plane perpendicular to the tool base. Then this angle is downward from front to rear of the cutting edge, the rake id positive; when upward from front to back, the rake is negative. This angle is most significant in the machining process, because it directly affects the cutting force, finish, and tool life.
The side-rake angle, numbered 2, measures the slope of the face in a cross plane perpendicular to the tool base. It, also, is an important angle, because it directs chip flow to the side of the tool post and permits the tool to feed more easily into the work.
The end-relief angle is measured between a line perpendicular to the base and the end flank immediately below the end cutting edge; it is numbered 3 in the figure. It provides clearance between work and tool so that its cut surface can flow by with minimum rubbing against the tool. To save time, a portion of the end flank of the tool may sometimes be left unground, having been previously forged to size. In such case, this end-clearance angle, numbered 4, measured to the end flank surface below the ground portion, would be larger than the relief angle.
Often the end cutting edge is oblique to the flank. The relief angle is then best measured in a plane normal to the end cutting edge perpendicular to the base of the tool. This clearance permits the tool to advance more smoothly into the work.
The side-relief angle, indicated as 5, is measured between the side flank, just below the cutting edge, and a line through the cutting edge perpendicular to the base of the tool. This clearance permits the tool to advance more smoothly into the work.
Angle 6 is the end-cutting-edge angle measured between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the side of the tool shank. This angle prevents rubbing of the cut surface and permits longer tool life.
The side-cutting-edge angle, numbered 7, is the angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank. The true length of cut is along this edge. Thus the angle determines the distribution of the cutting force. The greater the angle, the longer the tool life; but the possibility of chatter increases. A compromise must, as usual, be reached.
The nose angle, number 8, is the angle between the two component cutting edges. If the corner is rounded off, the arc size is defined by the nose radius 9. the radius size influences finish and chatter.
Cutting Tool Materials
A large number of cutting tool materials have been developed to meet the demands of high metal-removal rates. The most important of these materials and their influence on cutter design, are described below.
High Carbon Steel. Historically, high carbon steel was the earliest cutting material used industrially, but it has now been almost entirely superseded since it starts to temper at about 220℃ and this irreversible softening process continues as temperature increases. Cutting speeds with carbon steel tools are therefore limited to about 0.15m/s (30ft/min) when cutting mild steel, and even at these speeds a copious supply of coolant is required.
High-speed Steel. To overcome the low cutting speed restriction imposed by plain carbon steels, a range of alloy steels, known as high-speed steels, began to be introduced during the early years of this century. The chemical composition of these steels varies greatly, but they basically contain about 0.7% carbon and 4% chromium, with addition of tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum and cobalt in varying percentages. They maintain their hardness at temperatures up to about 600℃, but soften rapidly at cutting speeds in excess of 1.8m/s (350ft/min), and many cannot successfully cut mild steel faster than 0.75m/s (150ft/min).
Sintered Carbides. Carbide cutting tools, which were developed in Germany in the late 1920s, usually consist of tungsten carbide or mixtures of tungsten carbide and titanium or tantalum carbide in powder form, sintered in a matrix of cobalt or nickel. Because of the comparatively high cost of this tool material and its low rupture strength, it is normally produced in the form of tips which are either brazed to a steel shank or mechanically clamped in a specially designed holder. Mechanically clamped tool tips are frequently made as throwaway inserts. When all the cutting edges have been used the inserts are discarded, ad regrinding would cost more than a new tip.
The high hardness of carbide tools at elevated temperatures enables them to be used at much faster cutting speeds than high-speed steel (of 3-4m/s（600-800ft/min）when cutting mild steel). They are manufactured in several grades, enabling them to be used for most machining applications. Their earlier brittleness has been largely overcome by the introduction of tougher grades, which are frequently used for interrupted cuts including many arduous face-milling operations.
Recently, improvements have been claimed by using tungsten carbide tools coated with titanium carbide or titanium nitride (about 0.0005mm coating thickness). These tools are more resistant to wear than conventional tungsten carbide tools, and the reduction in interface friction using titanium nitride results in a reduction in cutting forces and in tool temperatures. Hence, higher metal removal rates are possible without detriment to tool life or alternatively longer tool lives could be achieved at unchanged metal removal rates.
The uses of other forms of coating with aluminum oxide and polycrystalline cubic boron nitride are still in an experimental stage, but it is likely that they will have important applications when machining cast iron, hardened steels and high melting point alloys.
Ceramics. The so-called ceramic group of cutting tools represents the most recent development in cutting tool materials. They consist mainly of sintered oxides, usually aluminum oxide, and are almost invariably in the form of clamped tips. Because of the comparative cheapness of ceramic tips and the difficulty of grinding them without causing thermal cracking, they are made as throw-away inserts.
Ceramic tools are a post-war introduction and are mot yet in general factory use. Their most likely application is in cutting metal at very high speeds, beyond the limits possible with carbide tools. Cramics resist the formation of a built-up edge and in consequence produce good surface finishes. Since the present generation of machine tools is designed with only sufficient power to exploit carbide tooling, it is likely that, for the time being, ceramics will be restricted to high-speed finish machining where is sufficient power available for the light cuts taken. The extreme brittleness of ceramic tools has largely limited their use to continuous cuts, although their use in milling is now possible.
As they are poorer conductors of heat than carbides, temperatures at the rake face are higher than in carbide tools, although the friction force is usually lower. To strengthen the cutting edge, and consequently improve the life of the ceramic tool, a small chamfer or radius is often stoned on the cutting edge, although this increases the power consumption.
Diamonds. For producing very fine finishes of 0.05-0.08um（2-3um) on non-ferrous metals such as copper and aluminum, diamond tools are often used. The diamond is brazed to a steel shank. Diamond turning and boring are essentially finishing operations, as the forces imposed by any but the smallest cuts cause the diamond to fracture or be torn from its mounting. Under suitable conditions diamonds have exceptionally long cutting lives.
Synthetic polycrystalline diamonds are now available as mechanically clamped cutting tips. Due to their high cost they have very limited applications, but are sometimes used for machining abrasive aluminum-silicon alloys, fused silica and reinforced plastics. The random orientation of their crystals gives them improved impact resistance, making them suitable for interrupted cutting.
車床
用于車外圓、端面和鏜孔等加工的機床稱作車床。車削很少在其他種類的機床上進行，因為其他機床都不能像車床那樣方便地進行車削加工。由于車床除了用于車外圓還能用于鏜孔、車端面、鉆孔和鉸孔，車床的多功能性可以是共建在一次定位安裝中完成多種加工。這種是在生產中普遍使用的各種車床比其他種類的機床都要多的原因。
兩千多年前就已經有了車床?，F(xiàn)代車床可以追溯到大約1797年，那時亨利·莫德斯利發(fā)明了一種具有絲杠的車床。這種車床可以控制工具的機械進給。這位聰明的英國人還發(fā)明了一種把主軸和絲杠相連的變速裝置，這樣就可以切削螺紋。
圖15-1中標出了車床的主要部件：床身、主軸箱組件、尾架組件、拖板組件、變速齒輪箱、絲杠和光杠。
床身是車床的基礎件。它通常是由經過充分正火或時效處理的灰鑄鐵或者球墨鑄鐵制成，它是一個堅固的剛性框架，所有其他主要部件都安裝在床身上。通常在床身上那個面有內外另組平行的導軌。一些制造廠生產的四個條導軌都采用倒“V”形，而另一些制造廠則將倒“V”形導軌和平面導軌相結合。由于其他的部件要安置在導軌上并（或）在導軌上移動，導軌要經過精密加工，以保證其裝配精度。同樣地，在操作中應該小心，以避免損傷導軌。導軌上的任何誤差，常常會使整個機床的精度遭到破壞。大多數(shù)現(xiàn)代車床的導軌要進行變面淬火處理，以減少磨損和擦傷，具有更大的耐磨性。
主軸箱安裝在車身一端內導軌的固定位置上。它提供動力，使工件在各種速度下旋轉。它基本上有一個安裝在精密軸承中的空心主軸和一系列變速齒輪——類似于卡車變速箱所組成，通過變速齒輪，主軸可以在許多種轉速下旋轉。大多數(shù)車床有8～18種轉速，一般按等比級數(shù)排列。在現(xiàn)代車床上只需扳動2～4個手柄，就能得到全部檔位的轉速。目前發(fā)展的趨勢是通過電氣的或機械的裝置進行無極變速。
由于車床的精度在很大程度上取決于主軸，因此主軸的結構尺寸較大，通常安裝在緊密配合的重型圓錐滾子軸承或球軸承中。主軸中有一個貫穿全長的通孔，長棒料可以通過該孔送料。主軸孔的大小是車床的一個重要尺寸，因為當工件必須通過主軸孔供料時，它確定了能夠加工棒料毛坯的最大外徑尺寸。
主軸的內端從主軸箱中凸出，其上可以安裝多種卡盤、花盤和擋塊。而小型的車床常有螺紋截面供安裝卡盤之用。很多大車床使用偏心夾或鍵動圓錐軸頭。這些附件組成了一個大直徑的圓錐體，以保證對卡盤進行精確地裝配，并且不用旋轉這些笨重的附件就可以鎖定或松開卡盤或花盤。
主軸由電動機經V帶或無聲鏈裝置提供動力。大多數(shù)現(xiàn)代車床都裝置有5～15馬力的電動機，為硬質合金和金屬陶瓷合金刀具提供足夠的動力，進行高速切削。
尾座組件主要由三部分組成。底座與床身的內側導軌配合，并可以子導軌上做縱向移動，底座上有一個可以使整個尾座組件加緊在任意位置上的裝置。尾座安裝在底座上，可以沿鍵槽在底座上橫向移動，使尾座與主軸箱中的主軸對中并為切削圓錐體提供方便。尾座組件的第三部分是尾座套筒，它是一個直徑通常在2～3英寸之間的鋼制空心圓柱軸。通過手輪和螺桿，尾座套筒可以在尾座體中縱向移入和移出幾英寸?；顒犹淄驳拈_口一端具有莫氏錐度，可以用于安裝頂尖或諸如鉆頭之類的各種刀具。通常在活動套筒的外表面刻有幾英寸長的刻度，以控制尾座的前后移動。鎖定裝置可以使套筒在所需的位置上夾緊。
拖板組件用于安裝和移動切削工具。拖板是一個相對平滑的H形鑄件，安裝在床身外側導軌上，并可以在上面移動。大拖板上有橫向導軌，使橫向拖板可以安裝在上面，并通過絲杠使其運動，絲杠由一個小手柄和刻度盤控制。橫拖板可以帶動刀具垂直于工件的旋轉軸線切削。
大多數(shù)車床的刀架安裝在復式刀座上，刀座上有底座，底座安裝在橫拖板上，可繞垂直軸和上刀架轉動。上刀架安裝在底座上，可用手輪和刻度盤控制一個短絲杠使其前后移動。
溜板箱裝在大拖板前面，通過溜板箱內的機械裝置可以手動和動力驅動大拖板以及動力驅動橫拖板。通過轉動溜板箱前的手輪，可以手動操作拖板沿床身移動。手輪的另一端與溜板箱背面的小齒輪連接，小齒輪與齒條嚙合，齒條倒裝在床身前上邊緣的下面。
利用光桿可以將動力傳遞給大拖板和橫拖板。光桿上有一個幾乎貫穿于整個光杠的鍵槽，光杠通過兩個轉向相反并用鍵連接的錐齒輪傳遞動力。通過溜板箱前的換向手柄可使嚙合齒輪與其中的一個錐齒輪嚙合，為大拖板提供“向前”或“向后”的動力。適當?shù)碾x合器或者齒條小齒輪連接或者與橫拖板的螺桿連接，是拖板縱向移動或使橫拖板橫向移動。
對于螺紋加工，絲杠提供了第二種縱向移動的方法。光杠通過摩擦離合器驅動拖板移動，離合器可能會產生打滑現(xiàn)象。而絲杠產生的運動是通過滑板箱與絲杠之間的直接機械連接來實現(xiàn)的，對于螺母可以實現(xiàn)這種連接。通過溜板箱前面的夾緊手柄可以使對開螺母緊緊包合絲杠。當對開螺母閉合時，可以沿絲杠直接驅動拖板，而不會出現(xiàn)打滑的可能性。
現(xiàn)代車床有一個變速齒輪箱，齒輪箱的輸入端有車床主軸通過合適的齒輪傳動來驅動。齒輪箱的輸出端與光杠和絲杠連接。主軸就是這樣通過齒輪傳動鏈驅動變速齒輪箱，在帶動絲杠和光杠，然后帶動拖板，刀具就可以按主軸的轉數(shù)縱向地或橫向地精確移動。一臺典型的車床的主軸每旋轉一圈，通過光杠可以獲得從0.002到0.
收藏