小型氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)
小型氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì),小型氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì),小型,氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī),設(shè)計(jì)
黃河科技學(xué)院畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)開題報(bào)告表
課題名稱
小型氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)
課題來源
教師擬訂
課題類型
AX
指導(dǎo)教師
學(xué)生姓名
專 業(yè)
機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)制造及其自動(dòng)化
學(xué) 號
一、 調(diào)研資料的準(zhǔn)備
1、初步了解小型氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī)裝置的組成和工作原理,多次到工程機(jī)械廠、印刷廠和軋鋼廠實(shí)地參觀并收集資料;
2、查閱并參閱機(jī)械原理、機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)、機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊和AutoCAD等各種書籍、資料;
3、通過實(shí)習(xí)、查閱和收集資料,具備了設(shè)計(jì)氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī)裝置的思路。
二、設(shè)計(jì)的目的與要求
1、了解各種分條機(jī)調(diào)整裝置的基本結(jié)構(gòu)、工作原理和發(fā)展動(dòng)態(tài);
2、綜合所學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)知識,設(shè)計(jì)一種砂帶分條機(jī)的調(diào)整裝置,包括測量裝置和執(zhí)行裝置等;
3、在畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)過程中綜合運(yùn)用大學(xué)所學(xué)知識,進(jìn)一步加強(qiáng)機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)技能,并且所設(shè)計(jì)的裝置具有一定的實(shí)用價(jià)值。
三、設(shè)計(jì)的思路與預(yù)期成果
1、通過實(shí)地參觀、資料搜集和信息整合,進(jìn)行砂帶分條機(jī)調(diào)整裝置的設(shè)計(jì);
2、培養(yǎng)獨(dú)立設(shè)計(jì)和創(chuàng)新設(shè)計(jì)的能力;
3、完成文獻(xiàn)綜述、文獻(xiàn)翻譯和設(shè)計(jì)說明書各一份,設(shè)計(jì)、繪制裝配圖和零件圖;
4、所設(shè)計(jì)的砂帶分條機(jī)調(diào)整裝置經(jīng)濟(jì)合理、工作可靠、檢修方便,符合生產(chǎn)實(shí)際條件。
四、任務(wù)完成的階段內(nèi)容及時(shí)間安排
1、1—2周:考察調(diào)研,實(shí)習(xí)參觀,收集資料,完成開題報(bào)告;
2、3—4周:完成文獻(xiàn)翻譯,文獻(xiàn)綜述,初步擬定總體設(shè)計(jì)方案;
3、5—9周:完成設(shè)計(jì)說明書初稿,基本完成圖紙繪制等工作;
4、10—11周:完成設(shè)計(jì)說明書、設(shè)計(jì)圖紙,整理完成所有設(shè)計(jì)文件;
5、第12周:做好答辯之前的所有準(zhǔn)備工作。
五、完成設(shè)計(jì)(論文)所具備的條件因素
1、通過有關(guān)的資料搜索、文獻(xiàn)檢索和相關(guān)信息整合,初步掌握了分條機(jī)調(diào)整裝置的基本結(jié)構(gòu)及工作原理;
2、實(shí)地的參觀更深入了解了分條機(jī)調(diào)整裝置的工藝要求,熟悉了本課題所面對的客觀現(xiàn)實(shí)條件;
3、扎實(shí)的理論知識,多次做課程設(shè)計(jì)的經(jīng)驗(yàn),收集的相關(guān)資料;
4、良好的設(shè)計(jì)環(huán)境和指導(dǎo)老師的指導(dǎo)。
指導(dǎo)教師簽名: 日期:
課題來源:(1)教師擬訂;(2)學(xué)生建議;(3)企業(yè)和社會(huì)征集;(4)科研單位提供
課題類型:(1)A—工程設(shè)計(jì)(藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì));B—技術(shù)開發(fā);C—軟件工程;D—理論研究;E—調(diào)研報(bào)告 (2)X—真實(shí)課題;Y—模擬課題;Z—虛擬課題
要求(1)、(2)均要填,如AY、BX等。
一、課題國內(nèi)外研究現(xiàn)狀
液壓機(jī)作為一種通用的無削成型加工設(shè)備,其工作原理是利用液體的壓力傳遞能量以完成各種壓力加工的。其工作特點(diǎn)之一是動(dòng)力傳動(dòng)為“ 柔性”傳動(dòng), 不象機(jī)械加工設(shè)備一樣動(dòng)力傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)復(fù)雜, 這種驅(qū)動(dòng)原理避免了機(jī)器過載的情況。二是液壓機(jī)的拉伸過程中只有單一的直線驅(qū)動(dòng)力, 沒有“ 成角的”驅(qū)動(dòng)力, 這使加工系統(tǒng)有較長的生命期和高的工件成品率。[1]
按照動(dòng)作方式可將液壓機(jī)分為單動(dòng)、雙動(dòng)、三動(dòng)三種形式。在單動(dòng)方式中, 壓頭或滑板作為移動(dòng)部件單向移動(dòng)完成壓制過程。雙動(dòng)型壓力機(jī)有兩個(gè)移動(dòng)部件:滑板或沖頭和模板。其工作過程是, 沖頭或滑板自上而下拉伸沖料, 模板充作固定壓板。三動(dòng)型壓力機(jī)中, 深拉伸滑塊和壓邊滑塊自上而下移動(dòng), 由模板實(shí)現(xiàn)打料動(dòng)作。
按照機(jī)架結(jié)構(gòu)形式液壓機(jī)可分為梁柱式、組合框架型、整體框架式、單臂式等。按照功能用途液壓機(jī)可分為手動(dòng)液壓機(jī)、鍛造液壓機(jī)、沖壓液壓機(jī)、一般用途液壓機(jī)、校正、壓裝液壓機(jī)、層壓液壓機(jī)、擠壓液壓機(jī)、壓制液壓機(jī)、打包壓塊液壓機(jī)、專用液壓機(jī)十組類型。[2]
由于液壓機(jī)的液壓系統(tǒng)和整機(jī)結(jié)構(gòu)方面已經(jīng)比較成熟, 國內(nèi)外液壓機(jī)的發(fā)展主要體現(xiàn)在控制系統(tǒng)方面。微電子技術(shù)的飛速發(fā)展, 為改進(jìn)液壓機(jī)的性能、提高穩(wěn)定性、加工效率等方面提供了可能。相比來講, 國內(nèi)機(jī)型雖種類齊全, 但技術(shù)含量相對較低, 缺乏技術(shù)含量高的高檔機(jī)型, 這與機(jī)電液一體化, 中小批量柔性生產(chǎn)的發(fā)展趨勢不相適應(yīng)。[3]
現(xiàn)在, 國外眾多液壓機(jī)生產(chǎn)廠家生產(chǎn)這種高性能的工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式的液壓機(jī)產(chǎn)品。正是因?yàn)椴捎眠@種先進(jìn)的控制方式, 使整機(jī)的控制性能, 生產(chǎn)效率都有很大提高。而與國外發(fā)展情況相比, 國內(nèi)極少有采用工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式的產(chǎn)品, 成熟的產(chǎn)品是采用可編程控制器的控制方式。[4]
中國液壓機(jī)行業(yè)經(jīng)過半個(gè)世紀(jì)的發(fā)展,在技術(shù)及生產(chǎn)上已經(jīng)基本成熟。 其國內(nèi)市場占有率是其他機(jī)床所不能比擬的, 但和國際發(fā)達(dá)國家的專業(yè)液壓機(jī)制造公司如米勒萬家頓、舒勒、川崎油工相比,尚有較大的差距。雖然我們的產(chǎn)量很大,但我們的價(jià)格卻只有它們的1/4到1/10 。要縮小這種差距,參與國際競爭,把液壓機(jī)打入國際高端市場,不能僅僅依靠價(jià)格的優(yōu)勢,必須把產(chǎn)品的技術(shù)含量和質(zhì)量放在第一位,這才是中國液壓機(jī)行業(yè)的根本目標(biāo)。[5]
作為液壓機(jī)兩大組成部分的主機(jī)和液壓系統(tǒng), 由于技術(shù)發(fā)展趨于成熟, 國內(nèi)外機(jī)型無較大差距。主要差別在于加工工藝和安裝方面。良好的工藝使機(jī)器在過濾、冷卻及防止沖擊和振動(dòng)方面, 有較明顯改善。[6]
在油路結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)方面, 國內(nèi)外液壓機(jī)都趨向于集成化、封閉式設(shè)計(jì)。插裝閥、疊加閥和復(fù)合化元件及系統(tǒng)在液壓系統(tǒng)中得到較廣泛的應(yīng)用。國外已開始廣泛采用封閉式循環(huán)油路設(shè)計(jì)。這種油路設(shè)計(jì)有效地防止泄油和污染。更重要的防止灰塵、污物、空氣、化學(xué)物質(zhì)侵人系統(tǒng), 延長了機(jī)器的使用壽命。由于加工工藝等方面的原因, 國內(nèi)采用封閉式循環(huán)油路設(shè)計(jì)的系統(tǒng)還不多見。在安全性方面, 國外某些采用微處理器控制的高性能液壓機(jī)利用軟件進(jìn)行故障的檢測和維護(hù), 如確嘆產(chǎn)品可實(shí)現(xiàn)負(fù)載檢測、自動(dòng)模具保護(hù)以及錯(cuò)誤診斷等功能。[7]
二、研究主要成果
當(dāng)前的國內(nèi)外液壓機(jī)產(chǎn)品中,按照控制系統(tǒng),可分為三種類型:
一是以繼電器為主控元件的傳統(tǒng)型液壓機(jī);二是采用可編程邏輯控制的液壓機(jī);三是應(yīng)用高級微處理器的高性能液壓機(jī)。[8]
三種類型功能各有差異, 應(yīng)用范圍也不盡相同。但總的發(fā)展趨勢是高速化、智能化。繼電器控制方式是延續(xù)了幾十年的傳統(tǒng)控制方式, 其電路結(jié)構(gòu)簡單, 技術(shù)要求不高, 成本較低, 相應(yīng)控制功能簡單, 適應(yīng)性不強(qiáng)。隨著技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展, 可編程序控制器的功能更加豐富。早期的可編程序控制器在功能上只能進(jìn)行簡單的邏輯控制,后來一些廠家開始采用微電子處理器作為可編程序控制器的中央處理單元, 從而擴(kuò)大了控制器的功能, 使其不僅可以進(jìn)行邏輯控制, 而且還可以對模擬量進(jìn)行控制。因此, 可編程控制器控制方式是介于繼電器方式和工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式之間的一種控制方式。可編程控制器有較高的穩(wěn)定性和靈活性, 但在功能方面與工業(yè)控制機(jī)相比有一定差異。工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式是在計(jì)算機(jī)控制技術(shù)成熟發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)上采用的一種高技術(shù)含量的控制方式。這種控制方式以工業(yè)控制機(jī)或單片單板機(jī)作為主控單元, 通過外圍接口器件如刀, 板等或直接應(yīng)用數(shù)字閥實(shí)現(xiàn)對液壓系統(tǒng)的控制, 同時(shí)利用各種傳感器組成閉環(huán)回路式的控制系統(tǒng), 達(dá)到精確控制的目的。[9]
繼電器控制方式是延續(xù)了幾十年的傳統(tǒng)控制方式,其電路結(jié)構(gòu)簡單,技術(shù)要求不高,成本較低,相應(yīng)控制功能簡單,適應(yīng)性不強(qiáng)。其適用于單機(jī)工作、加工產(chǎn)品精度要求不高的大批量生產(chǎn)(如餐具、廚具產(chǎn)品等),也可組成簡單的生產(chǎn)線,但由于電路的限制,穩(wěn)定性及柔性較差?,F(xiàn)在國內(nèi)許多液壓機(jī)廠家是以這種機(jī)型為主,使用對象多為小型加工廠,或加工精度不高的民用產(chǎn)品。國外眾多廠家只是保留了對這種機(jī)型的生產(chǎn)能力,而主要面向以下兩種技術(shù)含量的機(jī)型組織生產(chǎn)。[10]
可編程控制器是在繼電器控制和計(jì)算機(jī)控制發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)上開發(fā)出來的,并逐漸發(fā)展成以微處理器為核心,把自動(dòng)化技術(shù),計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù),通訊技術(shù)融為一體的新興工業(yè)自動(dòng)控制裝置,目前已被廣泛的應(yīng)用于各種生產(chǎn)機(jī)械以及自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過程中。隨著技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展,可編程序控制器的功能更加豐富。早期的可編程序控制器在功能上只能進(jìn)行簡單的邏輯控制。后來一些廠家開始采用微電子處理器作為可編程序控制器的中央處理單元(CPU),從而擴(kuò)大了控制器的功能,使其不僅可以進(jìn)行邏輯控制,而且還可以對模擬量進(jìn)行控制。因此,可編程控制器控制方式是介于繼電器方式和工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式之間的一種控制方式??删幊炭刂破饔休^高的穩(wěn)定性和靈活性,但在功能方面與工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式,如天津鍛壓機(jī)械廠有近60%的產(chǎn)品裝有PLC。通過采用PLC控制,使系統(tǒng)的控制性能和可靠性大大提高。國外廠家如丹麥的STENHQJ公司采用了SIEMENS的可編程控制器,實(shí)現(xiàn)對壓力和位移的控制。[11]
工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式是在計(jì)算機(jī)控制技術(shù)成熟發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)上采用的一種高技術(shù)含量的控制方式。這種控制方式以工業(yè)控制機(jī)或單片/單板機(jī)作為主控單元,通過外圍接口器件或直接應(yīng)用數(shù)字閥實(shí)現(xiàn)對液壓系統(tǒng)的控制,同時(shí)利用各種傳感器組成閉環(huán)回路式的控制系統(tǒng),達(dá)到精確控制的目的。這種控制方式主要有以下特點(diǎn):
①具有友好的人機(jī)交互性,操作簡單。如:BROWN、BOGCS公司的產(chǎn)品,可通過數(shù)字面板顯示輸入壓力、快進(jìn)和回程速度、壓制速度及保壓/停機(jī)時(shí)間參數(shù),極大減輕了勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度。
②控制精度高。數(shù)字控制的行程長度及工作行程與傳統(tǒng)機(jī)械式的行程開關(guān)控制相比,精度有極大的提高。一般控制精度可達(dá)到0.05mm[2]
③易于實(shí)現(xiàn)高速化,提高生產(chǎn)效率。如美國的FERRA公司通過采用電子微處理控制方式,工作循環(huán)比以前快60%。
④可順利實(shí)現(xiàn)對工作參數(shù)(壓力、速度、行程等)的單獨(dú)調(diào)整。通過對控制參數(shù)的單獨(dú)控制,調(diào)整被加工材料的流動(dòng),能進(jìn)行復(fù)雜工件、不對稱工件的加工。[12]
⑤預(yù)存工作模式,可對不同工件的工藝過程、工藝參數(shù)預(yù)先存儲(chǔ)和重復(fù)調(diào)用,縮短調(diào)整時(shí)間。這與柔性加工的加工要求相適應(yīng)。
⑥對高速下的換向沖擊可利用軟件來清除,以降低噪聲,提高系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定性。
⑦在安全方面,可利用軟件進(jìn)行故障預(yù)診斷,并且自動(dòng)修復(fù)故障和顯示錯(cuò)誤。如STENHQF的機(jī)型和BROWN BOGCS公司都有此項(xiàng)功能
⑧易于實(shí)現(xiàn)生產(chǎn)線的集成控制,組成柔性生產(chǎn)線及與上位機(jī)進(jìn)行通訊和實(shí)現(xiàn)調(diào)度控制。[13]
三、發(fā)展趨勢:
目前四柱液壓機(jī)到底發(fā)展方向主要有:
1) 機(jī)電液一體化。充分合理利用機(jī)械和電子方面的先進(jìn)技術(shù)促進(jìn)整個(gè)液壓系統(tǒng)的完善。
2)高速化,高效化,低能耗。提高液壓機(jī)的工作效率,降低生產(chǎn)成本。
3) 自動(dòng)化、智能化。微電子技術(shù)的高速發(fā)展為液壓機(jī)的自動(dòng)化和智能化提供了充分的條件。自動(dòng)化不僅僅體現(xiàn)的在加工,應(yīng)能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)對系統(tǒng)的自動(dòng)診斷和調(diào)整,具有故障預(yù)處理的功能。
4) 液壓元件集成化,標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化。集成的液壓系統(tǒng)減少了管路連接,有效地防止泄漏和污染。標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的元件為機(jī)器的維修帶來方便。[14]
四、存在問題
1)液壓元件制造精度要求高 由于元件的技術(shù)要求高和裝配比較困難,使用維護(hù)比較嚴(yán)格。
2)實(shí)現(xiàn)定比傳動(dòng)困難 液壓傳動(dòng)是以液壓油為工作介質(zhì),在相對運(yùn)動(dòng)表面間不可避免的要有泄漏,同時(shí)油液也不是絕對不可壓縮的。
3)油液受溫度的影響 由于油的粘度隨溫度的改變而改變,故不宜在高溫或低溫的環(huán)境下工作。
4)不適宜遠(yuǎn)距離輸送動(dòng)力 由于采用油管傳輸壓力油,壓力損失較大,故不宜遠(yuǎn)距離輸送動(dòng)力。
5)油液中混入空氣易影響工作性能 油液中混入空氣后,容易引起爬行、振動(dòng)和噪聲,使系統(tǒng)的工作性能受到影響。
6)油液容易污染 油液污染后,會(huì)影響系統(tǒng)工作的可靠性。
7)發(fā)生故障不易檢查和排除。[15]
五、主要參考文獻(xiàn)
[1]徐剛,魯潔,黃才元.金屬板材沖壓成型技術(shù)與裝備的現(xiàn)狀與發(fā)展.鍛壓裝備及控制技術(shù).2004(4).
[2]王衛(wèi)衛(wèi). 金屬與塑料成型設(shè)備. 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社. 1996第一版
[3]李運(yùn)化. 近代液壓伺服系統(tǒng)控制策略的現(xiàn)狀與發(fā)展. 液壓與氣動(dòng). 1995(1)1-6
[4]劉慶印. 我國鍛壓設(shè)備產(chǎn)業(yè)競爭力分析. 鍛壓技術(shù). 2005,(5)
[5] 李貴閃 何曉燕 榮兆杰. 我國液壓機(jī)行業(yè)的現(xiàn)狀及發(fā)展. 鍛壓裝備與制造技術(shù) 2006, 41(4):17- 39.
[6]成大先. 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊(第三版). 北京: 化學(xué)工業(yè)出版社. 1997
[7]天覺 等. 液壓工程手冊. 北京: 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社. 1990
[8]2004年機(jī)床行業(yè)企業(yè)主要經(jīng)濟(jì)指標(biāo)分析匯總. 中國機(jī)床工具協(xié)會(huì). 2005-04
[9] 王孝培.主編.沖壓手冊.北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社.1988.
[10]成大先. 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊(第4卷)[M]. 北京:化學(xué)工業(yè)出版社.1994.
[11] Dynaform 使用手冊
[12] Pump System Hydraulic Design. B.E.Bosserman.
[13] Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems. Optimal design lab.
[14] Deform 使用手冊
[15] Fitch E C .Hong IT .Contamination for the fluid power. Industry HIAC/ROYCO 1990
單位代碼
學(xué) 號
分 類 號
密 級
畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)
文獻(xiàn)綜述
小型氣動(dòng)壓力機(jī)的設(shè)計(jì)
院(系)名稱
工學(xué)院機(jī)械系
專業(yè)名稱
機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)制造及其自動(dòng)化
學(xué)生姓名
指導(dǎo)教師
2012年 3月16日
液壓氣壓系統(tǒng)
一、課題國內(nèi)外研究現(xiàn)狀
液壓機(jī)作為一種通用的無削成型加工設(shè)備,其工作原理是利用液體的壓力傳遞能量以完成各種壓力加工的。其工作特點(diǎn)之一是動(dòng)力傳動(dòng)為“ 柔性”傳動(dòng), 不象機(jī)械加工設(shè)備一樣動(dòng)力傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)復(fù)雜, 這種驅(qū)動(dòng)原理避免了機(jī)器過載的情況。二是液壓機(jī)的拉伸過程中只有單一的直線驅(qū)動(dòng)力, 沒有“ 成角的”驅(qū)動(dòng)力, 這使加工系統(tǒng)有較長的生命期和高的工件成品率。[1]
按照動(dòng)作方式可將液壓機(jī)分為單動(dòng)、雙動(dòng)、三動(dòng)三種形式。在單動(dòng)方式中, 壓頭或滑板作為移動(dòng)部件單向移動(dòng)完成壓制過程。雙動(dòng)型壓力機(jī)有兩個(gè)移動(dòng)部件:滑板或沖頭和模板。其工作過程是, 沖頭或滑板自上而下拉伸沖料, 模板充作固定壓板。三動(dòng)型壓力機(jī)中, 深拉伸滑塊和壓邊滑塊自上而下移動(dòng), 由模板實(shí)現(xiàn)打料動(dòng)作。
按照機(jī)架結(jié)構(gòu)形式液壓機(jī)可分為梁柱式、組合框架型、整體框架式、單臂式等。按照功能用途液壓機(jī)可分為手動(dòng)液壓機(jī)、鍛造液壓機(jī)、沖壓液壓機(jī)、一般用途液壓機(jī)、校正、壓裝液壓機(jī)、層壓液壓機(jī)、擠壓液壓機(jī)、壓制液壓機(jī)、打包壓塊液壓機(jī)、專用液壓機(jī)十組類型。[2]
由于液壓機(jī)的液壓系統(tǒng)和整機(jī)結(jié)構(gòu)方面已經(jīng)比較成熟, 國內(nèi)外液壓機(jī)的發(fā)展主要體現(xiàn)在控制系統(tǒng)方面。微電子技術(shù)的飛速發(fā)展, 為改進(jìn)液壓機(jī)的性能、提高穩(wěn)定性、加工效率等方面提供了可能。相比來講, 國內(nèi)機(jī)型雖種類齊全, 但技術(shù)含量相對較低, 缺乏技術(shù)含量高的高檔機(jī)型, 這與機(jī)電液一體化, 中小批量柔性生產(chǎn)的發(fā)展趨勢不相適應(yīng)。[3]
現(xiàn)在, 國外眾多液壓機(jī)生產(chǎn)廠家生產(chǎn)這種高性能的工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式的液壓機(jī)產(chǎn)品。正是因?yàn)椴捎眠@種先進(jìn)的控制方式, 使整機(jī)的控制性能, 生產(chǎn)效率都有很大提高。而與國外發(fā)展情況相比, 國內(nèi)極少有采用工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式的產(chǎn)品, 成熟的產(chǎn)品是采用可編程控制器的控制方式。[4]
中國液壓機(jī)行業(yè)經(jīng)過半個(gè)世紀(jì)的發(fā)展,在技術(shù)及生產(chǎn)上已經(jīng)基本成熟。 其國內(nèi)市場占有率是其他機(jī)床所不能比擬的, 但和國際發(fā)達(dá)國家的專業(yè)液壓機(jī)制造公司如米勒萬家頓、舒勒、川崎油工相比,尚有較大的差距。雖然我們的產(chǎn)量很大,但我們的價(jià)格卻只有它們的1/4到1/10 。要縮小這種差距,參與國際競爭,把液壓機(jī)打入國際高端市場,不能僅僅依靠價(jià)格的優(yōu)勢,必須把產(chǎn)品的技術(shù)含量和質(zhì)量放在第一位,這才是中國液壓機(jī)行業(yè)的根本目標(biāo)。[5]
作為液壓機(jī)兩大組成部分的主機(jī)和液壓系統(tǒng), 由于技術(shù)發(fā)展趨于成熟, 國內(nèi)外機(jī)型無較大差距。主要差別在于加工工藝和安裝方面。良好的工藝使機(jī)器在過濾、冷卻及防止沖擊和振動(dòng)方面, 有較明顯改善。[6]
在油路結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)方面, 國內(nèi)外液壓機(jī)都趨向于集成化、封閉式設(shè)計(jì)。插裝閥、疊加閥和復(fù)合化元件及系統(tǒng)在液壓系統(tǒng)中得到較廣泛的應(yīng)用。國外已開始廣泛采用封閉式循環(huán)油路設(shè)計(jì)。這種油路設(shè)計(jì)有效地防止泄油和污染。更重要的防止灰塵、污物、空氣、化學(xué)物質(zhì)侵人系統(tǒng), 延長了機(jī)器的使用壽命。由于加工工藝等方面的原因, 國內(nèi)采用封閉式循環(huán)油路設(shè)計(jì)的系統(tǒng)還不多見。在安全性方面, 國外某些采用微處理器控制的高性能液壓機(jī)利用軟件進(jìn)行故障的檢測和維護(hù), 如確嘆產(chǎn)品可實(shí)現(xiàn)負(fù)載檢測、自動(dòng)模具保護(hù)以及錯(cuò)誤診斷等功能。[7]
二、研究主要成果
當(dāng)前的國內(nèi)外液壓機(jī)產(chǎn)品中,按照控制系統(tǒng),可分為三種類型:
一是以繼電器為主控元件的傳統(tǒng)型液壓機(jī);二是采用可編程邏輯控制的液壓機(jī);三是應(yīng)用高級微處理器的高性能液壓機(jī)。[8]
三種類型功能各有差異, 應(yīng)用范圍也不盡相同。但總的發(fā)展趨勢是高速化、智能化。繼電器控制方式是延續(xù)了幾十年的傳統(tǒng)控制方式, 其電路結(jié)構(gòu)簡單, 技術(shù)要求不高, 成本較低, 相應(yīng)控制功能簡單, 適應(yīng)性不強(qiáng)。隨著技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展, 可編程序控制器的功能更加豐富。早期的可編程序控制器在功能上只能進(jìn)行簡單的邏輯控制,后來一些廠家開始采用微電子處理器作為可編程序控制器的中央處理單元, 從而擴(kuò)大了控制器的功能, 使其不僅可以進(jìn)行邏輯控制, 而且還可以對模擬量進(jìn)行控制。因此, 可編程控制器控制方式是介于繼電器方式和工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式之間的一種控制方式??删幊炭刂破饔休^高的穩(wěn)定性和靈活性, 但在功能方面與工業(yè)控制機(jī)相比有一定差異。工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式是在計(jì)算機(jī)控制技術(shù)成熟發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)上采用的一種高技術(shù)含量的控制方式。這種控制方式以工業(yè)控制機(jī)或單片單板機(jī)作為主控單元, 通過外圍接口器件如刀, 板等或直接應(yīng)用數(shù)字閥實(shí)現(xiàn)對液壓系統(tǒng)的控制, 同時(shí)利用各種傳感器組成閉環(huán)回路式的控制系統(tǒng), 達(dá)到精確控制的目的。[9]
繼電器控制方式是延續(xù)了幾十年的傳統(tǒng)控制方式,其電路結(jié)構(gòu)簡單,技術(shù)要求不高,成本較低,相應(yīng)控制功能簡單,適應(yīng)性不強(qiáng)。其適用于單機(jī)工作、加工產(chǎn)品精度要求不高的大批量生產(chǎn)(如餐具、廚具產(chǎn)品等),也可組成簡單的生產(chǎn)線,但由于電路的限制,穩(wěn)定性及柔性較差。現(xiàn)在國內(nèi)許多液壓機(jī)廠家是以這種機(jī)型為主,使用對象多為小型加工廠,或加工精度不高的民用產(chǎn)品。國外眾多廠家只是保留了對這種機(jī)型的生產(chǎn)能力,而主要面向以下兩種技術(shù)含量的機(jī)型組織生產(chǎn)。[10]
可編程控制器是在繼電器控制和計(jì)算機(jī)控制發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)上開發(fā)出來的,并逐漸發(fā)展成以微處理器為核心,把自動(dòng)化技術(shù),計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù),通訊技術(shù)融為一體的新興工業(yè)自動(dòng)控制裝置,目前已被廣泛的應(yīng)用于各種生產(chǎn)機(jī)械以及自動(dòng)化生產(chǎn)過程中。隨著技術(shù)的不斷發(fā)展,可編程序控制器的功能更加豐富。早期的可編程序控制器在功能上只能進(jìn)行簡單的邏輯控制。后來一些廠家開始采用微電子處理器作為可編程序控制器的中央處理單元(CPU),從而擴(kuò)大了控制器的功能,使其不僅可以進(jìn)行邏輯控制,而且還可以對模擬量進(jìn)行控制。因此,可編程控制器控制方式是介于繼電器方式和工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式之間的一種控制方式??删幊炭刂破饔休^高的穩(wěn)定性和靈活性,但在功能方面與工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式,如天津鍛壓機(jī)械廠有近60%的產(chǎn)品裝有PLC。通過采用PLC控制,使系統(tǒng)的控制性能和可靠性大大提高。國外廠家如丹麥的STENHQJ公司采用了SIEMENS的可編程控制器,實(shí)現(xiàn)對壓力和位移的控制。[11]
工業(yè)控制機(jī)控制方式是在計(jì)算機(jī)控制技術(shù)成熟發(fā)展的基礎(chǔ)上采用的一種高技術(shù)含量的控制方式。這種控制方式以工業(yè)控制機(jī)或單片/單板機(jī)作為主控單元,通過外圍接口器件或直接應(yīng)用數(shù)字閥實(shí)現(xiàn)對液壓系統(tǒng)的控制,同時(shí)利用各種傳感器組成閉環(huán)回路式的控制系統(tǒng),達(dá)到精確控制的目的。這種控制方式主要有以下特點(diǎn):
①具有友好的人機(jī)交互性,操作簡單。如:BROWN、BOGCS公司的產(chǎn)品,可通過數(shù)字面板顯示輸入壓力、快進(jìn)和回程速度、壓制速度及保壓/停機(jī)時(shí)間參數(shù),極大減輕了勞動(dòng)強(qiáng)度。
②控制精度高。數(shù)字控制的行程長度及工作行程與傳統(tǒng)機(jī)械式的行程開關(guān)控制相比,精度有極大的提高。一般控制精度可達(dá)到0.05mm[2]
③易于實(shí)現(xiàn)高速化,提高生產(chǎn)效率。如美國的FERRA公司通過采用電子微處理控制方式,工作循環(huán)比以前快60%。
④可順利實(shí)現(xiàn)對工作參數(shù)(壓力、速度、行程等)的單獨(dú)調(diào)整。通過對控制參數(shù)的單獨(dú)控制,調(diào)整被加工材料的流動(dòng),能進(jìn)行復(fù)雜工件、不對稱工件的加工。[12]
⑤預(yù)存工作模式,可對不同工件的工藝過程、工藝參數(shù)預(yù)先存儲(chǔ)和重復(fù)調(diào)用,縮短調(diào)整時(shí)間。這與柔性加工的加工要求相適應(yīng)。
⑥對高速下的換向沖擊可利用軟件來清除,以降低噪聲,提高系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定性。
⑦在安全方面,可利用軟件進(jìn)行故障預(yù)診斷,并且自動(dòng)修復(fù)故障和顯示錯(cuò)誤。如STENHQF的機(jī)型和BROWN BOGCS公司都有此項(xiàng)功能
⑧易于實(shí)現(xiàn)生產(chǎn)線的集成控制,組成柔性生產(chǎn)線及與上位機(jī)進(jìn)行通訊和實(shí)現(xiàn)調(diào)度控制。[13]
三、發(fā)展趨勢:
目前四柱液壓機(jī)到底發(fā)展方向主要有:
1) 機(jī)電液一體化。充分合理利用機(jī)械和電子方面的先進(jìn)技術(shù)促進(jìn)整個(gè)液壓系統(tǒng)的完善。
2)高速化,高效化,低能耗。提高液壓機(jī)的工作效率,降低生產(chǎn)成本。
3) 自動(dòng)化、智能化。微電子技術(shù)的高速發(fā)展為液壓機(jī)的自動(dòng)化和智能化提供了充分的條件。自動(dòng)化不僅僅體現(xiàn)的在加工,應(yīng)能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)對系統(tǒng)的自動(dòng)診斷和調(diào)整,具有故障預(yù)處理的功能。
4) 液壓元件集成化,標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化。集成的液壓系統(tǒng)減少了管路連接,有效地防止泄漏和污染。標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的元件為機(jī)器的維修帶來方便。[14]
四、存在問題
1)液壓元件制造精度要求高 由于元件的技術(shù)要求高和裝配比較困難,使用維護(hù)比較嚴(yán)格。
2)實(shí)現(xiàn)定比傳動(dòng)困難 液壓傳動(dòng)是以液壓油為工作介質(zhì),在相對運(yùn)動(dòng)表面間不可避免的要有泄漏,同時(shí)油液也不是絕對不可壓縮的。
3)油液受溫度的影響 由于油的粘度隨溫度的改變而改變,故不宜在高溫或低溫的環(huán)境下工作。
4)不適宜遠(yuǎn)距離輸送動(dòng)力 由于采用油管傳輸壓力油,壓力損失較大,故不宜遠(yuǎn)距離輸送動(dòng)力。
5)油液中混入空氣易影響工作性能 油液中混入空氣后,容易引起爬行、振動(dòng)和噪聲,使系統(tǒng)的工作性能受到影響。
6)油液容易污染 油液污染后,會(huì)影響系統(tǒng)工作的可靠性。
7)發(fā)生故障不易檢查和排除。[15]
五、主要參考文獻(xiàn)
[1]徐剛,魯潔,黃才元.金屬板材沖壓成型技術(shù)與裝備的現(xiàn)狀與發(fā)展.鍛壓裝備及控制技術(shù).2004(4).
[2]王衛(wèi)衛(wèi). 金屬與塑料成型設(shè)備. 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社. 1996第一版
[3]李運(yùn)化. 近代液壓伺服系統(tǒng)控制策略的現(xiàn)狀與發(fā)展. 液壓與氣動(dòng). 1995(1)1-6
[4]劉慶印. 我國鍛壓設(shè)備產(chǎn)業(yè)競爭力分析. 鍛壓技術(shù). 2005,(5)
[5] 李貴閃 何曉燕 榮兆杰. 我國液壓機(jī)行業(yè)的現(xiàn)狀及發(fā)展. 鍛壓裝備與制造技術(shù) 2006, 41(4):17- 39.
[6]成大先. 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊(第三版). 北京: 化學(xué)工業(yè)出版社. 1997
[7]天覺 等. 液壓工程手冊. 北京: 機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社. 1990
[8]2004年機(jī)床行業(yè)企業(yè)主要經(jīng)濟(jì)指標(biāo)分析匯總. 中國機(jī)床工具協(xié)會(huì). 2005-04
[9] 王孝培.主編.沖壓手冊.北京:機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社.1988.
[10]成大先. 機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊(第4卷)[M]. 北京:化學(xué)工業(yè)出版社.1994.
[11] Dynaform 使用手冊
[12] Pump System Hydraulic Design. B.E.Bosserman.
[13] Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems. Optimal design lab.
[14] Deform 使用手冊
[15] Fitch E C .Hong IT .Contamination for the fluid power. Industry HIAC/ROYCO 1990
Comparison of various modeling methods for analysis of powder compaction in roller press Roman T. Dec a , Antonios Zavaliangos b, * , John C. Cunningham b a K.R. Komarek Briquetting Research Inc., Anniston, AL 36207, USA b Department of Materials Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104-2875, USA Abstract Recently used models relating basic properties of the feed material, roller press design and its operating parameters are reviewed. In particular, we discuss the rolling theory for granular solids proposed by J.R. Johanson in the 1960s, later trials utilizing slab method and newly developed final element models. These methods are compared in terms of efficiency and accuracy of predicting the course of basic process variables like nip angle, pressure distribution in roll nip region, neutral angle, roll torque and roll force. The finite element method offers the most versatile approach because it incorporates adequate information about powder behavior, geometry and frictional conditions. This enables to perform realistic computer experiments minimizing costs, time and resources needed for process and equipment optimization. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Roll compaction; Modeling methods; Finite element model 1. Introduction The conceptual simplicity and low operating cost make roll pressing a very popular pressure agglomeration method. It is used for a large number of materials in mining, mineral, metallurgical, chemical, food and pharmaceutical industries. There can be a number of reasons for particle size enlarge- ment, the most important are to improve material storage, handling, feeding, dosing or mixing characteristics. In ther- mal operations, it can also improve efficiency of melting, drying or burning. A roll compaction operation is successful when it produ- ces compacts with uniform, desired mechanical (or other) properties at a specified production rate and unit cost. It dependsonproper matchingofthepropertiesofpowdertobe processed with the design and operating parameters of the roller press. The main feed material properties to be considered are the stressstrain relationship and friction coefficient as a function of powder density (or stress state). Important design factors will be: feed system design, roll diameter and roll surface geometry. The main operating parameters to be set are: the roll speed, roll gap, roll torque, roll force, feeder and deaerating device conditions. Current industrial compacting and briquetting practice is largely based on trial-and-error techniques. While it is possible to achieve the optimum process performance using such an approach, it results in an increase of operating cost and time, especially with higher value materials and more demanding quality requirements. An alternative approach is to use mathematical modeling to provide necessary information for proper equipment and process design. In spite of its apparent simplicity, powder compaction in a roller press exhibits some behaviors and interactions that are poorly understood from an analytical view. Mathematical models that will allow realistic numer- ical simulation of powder compaction and appropriate visualization of these results can permit the process engineer to gain a better understanding through the process, leading to its better design and control. The purpose of this paper is to review the existing models and compare them in terms of efficiency and accuracy of predicting the course of basic process variables. Only three models developed through the last few decades and thought to be best suited for predicting mechanical behavior of granular materials during roll compaction are considered. 0032-5910/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S0032-5910(02)00203-6 * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-215-895-2078; fax: +1-215-895- 6760. E-mail address: azavaliacoe.drexel.edu (A. Zavaliangos). Powder Technology 130 (2003) 265271 2. Models of compaction process in the roller press 2.1. Model proposed by J.R. Johanson Developed in mid-1960s, it was the first complex model allowing to predict behavior of the material undergoing continuous shear deformation between the rolls. The mate- rial is assumed to be isotropic, frictional, cohesive and com- pressible and to obey the effective yield function (Jenike Shield 1). Pressure distribution above the nip region was determined based onthe continuousplane-straindeformation and assum- ingtheslipalongtherollsurface.Thefollowinginputdataare needed: effective angle of internal friction and angle of wall friction. Both can be determined using a Jenike shear tester. In the nip region, a very simplified material model was applied. It was assumed that there is no slip between the material and the roll surface and all material trapped between the rolls at the position of nip angle must be compressed into a strip with the width equal to the roll gap. As a result, pressure in the nip region is described by the pressuredensity relationship obtained from the experi- ment using punch-die system. Two equations are considered to determine the nip angle, as it is illustrated in Fig. 1. First one, represented by solid line, describes pressure gradient for the x direction, assum- ing that slip occurs along the roll surface. When slip does not take place between compacted material and the rolls, pressure gradient is given by the second equation shown by the dashed line in Fig. 1. Based on the examinations presented in Ref. 2, it is indicated that the intersection of the two curves gives the angle of nip, a. The actual pressure gradient above the a is given by solid line, and from a to the rolls center axis by the dashed line. This model can be very useful to determine the angle of nip for gravity fed roller presses. It gives a good agreement with experimental data when applied to the cases where smooth rollers with large diameter (over 500 mm) are used. Discrepancies are much higher when cavities are cut into the roller working surface and, as a result of simplifying assumption, roller diameter is reduced by the mean depth of those cavities. In the case of predicting the values of basic operating parameters like roll force and roll torque, the agreements are reasonably good for granular materials showing high coef- ficient of friction against the roller surface and mid and high values of compressibility constant, K. Discrepancies between computed and measured values are bigger (some- times over 50%) when higher compaction pressures (over 100 MPa) are applied and materials are very compressible (low K value). In spite of its limitations, it should be pointed out that it has been the first model allowing engineers to analyze the correlation between basic process variables and properties of the granular material. It also emphasizes that a lack of understanding compaction mechanism can result in a proc- ess and equipment design which will not produce a product with the required characteristics. Considering the simplifications made while modeling powder behavior in the nip region were responsible for discrepancies with the real system, a modeling technique known as a slab method was evaluated. 2.2. Analysis of nip region based on slab method This method of modeling was widely used to predict pressure distribution and roll separating force in metal rolling process. Similarly to the Johanson model, plane sections are assumed to remain plane as they pass through the rolls. It was first applied to analyze metal powder rolling by Katashinskii 3. However, yield criterion for fully dense metal was used in those initial studies. In the analysis presented below, the concept of yield criterion for metal powders proposed by Kuhn and Downey 4 was employed in order to develop the material model. Deformation zone under the rolls was divided into trapezoidal slabs as seen in Fig. 2 5. The force balance on the slab results in the equilibrium equation for the x direction and is expressed as: Bhr x Bx 2ptana x C0 s f 0 1 In Eq. (1) the frictional stress is expressed as: s f Yq : for lppzYq2 s f lpp : for lpp 95%) porous metal. The friction for the roll/material was assumed to follow the Coulomb friction law with a constant frictional coef- ficient. The effect of the feed system was represented by a constant feed stress applied to the mesh in the rolling di- rection at the inflow boundary. To address the severe mesh distortion observed in the initial implicit Lagrangian simulations, the arbitrary Lagran- Fig. 5. The roll pressure vs. rolling angle as function of feed stress for powder/roll friction coefficient of 0.50. Fig. 6. The roll pressure vs. rolling angle as function of feed stress and coefficient of friction. R.T. Dec et al. / Powder Technology 130 (2003) 265271 269 gianEulerian (ALE) analysis features with adaptive mesh- ing were employed with the explicit version of the ABA- QUS finite element code. The mass and densities of the roll and material mesh were optimized to minimize inertial effects for this quasi-static deformation problem and to minimize computational time. Eulerian inflow and outflow boundaries were used. The simulation was conducted until steady state conditions were reached based on the constant values of the roll force and roll torque. The simulations were conducted to evaluate the effect of the frictional coefficient at the roll/powder interface and the feed stress on basic process variables: roll force, roll torque, nip angle and neutral angle. The nip angle was defined as a value of the rolling angle in which the linear velocity of the roll surface is equal to the velocity of contacting material (no slip), the neutral angle as the angle in which the frictional shear stress at the roll surface reverses direction. These values along with the relative density of compact at the exit are presented in Table 1. The roll pressure profiles as a function of feed stress and coefficient of friction are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respec- tively. The shear stress profiles as a function of feed stress and coefficient of friction are shown in Fig. 7. The results indicate reveals the anticipated two regions of slip in the feed zone and sticking in the nip region. The nip angle is approximately 8.5j and 12j for coefficients of friction of 0.35 and 0.50, respectively. The feed stress had a significant effect on the maximum roll pressure generated. Increasing the coefficient of friction for a given feed stress likewise increased the maximum roll pressure. In all con- ditions, the maximum roll pressure is observed 0.5j to 1.1j before the centerline between the rolls. The roll force and roll torque increased as expected with increasing feed stress and frictional coefficient. Likewise, the exit relative density also increases with the increase of frictional coefficient and the feed stress. The contour plot of velocity in the rolling direction for the simulation in which the feed stress is 0.21 MPa and the Fig. 7. The shear stress at the roll surface vs. rolling angle as function of feed stress and coefficient of friction. Fig. 8. Velocity in the rolling direction (v1) in mm/s for example simulation (feed stress=0.21 MPa and coefficient of friction at roll/powder=0.50). The roll is rotating with a linear velocity of C050 mm/s at the surface. Note the nonhomogeneous velocity especially in the feed zone. R.T. Dec et al. / Powder Technology 130 (2003) 265271270 coefficient of friction at the roll is 0.50, which is shown in Fig. 8, reveal a nonhomogeneous velocity field especially in the feed zone. Additional refinement of the finite element model is necessary before final experimental verification of the results. For example, material stress at the roll entry should be considered as a function of time and position to better represent influence of the feed screw system. Also, improve- ment in the material model and treatment of the friction phenomena should add to better agreement with the real physical system 13. 3. Summary and conclusions Presented work demonstrates the historical development of the models describing compaction process in the roller press. As it was shown, final element-based analysis has several advantages over the modeling methods used in the past. By utilizing the commercially available software, models can be adjusted, to generate improved solutions through a process of hypothesis, numerical testing and reformulation. Prediction of relative densities, material flow, deformation energy, shear stress (roll torque), pressure distribution (roll force), position of nip angle and neutral angle, failure of the compact during release, etc. can all be made with these models. All of these important consider- ations can be taken one step further by including model of the feeding process and forming tool geometry (cavities in the roll surface). It leads to realistic analysis of the com- paction process and with appropriate visualization of the results to a better design and control. This is particularly important with manufacturing of engineered agglomerated products with specific properties (pharmaceutical, chemical, ceramic or semi-conductor industries). The biggest challenges with the implementation of the FEM modeling are arising not from the computational problems, but from preparation of the adequate input data. There is a need for better, more accurate material models, which realistically represent the behavior of the powder through the wide range of densities during compaction. Using the appropriate friction model, describing phenom- ena on the material/forming tool interface is of great importance as well, because all the processing energy is transmitted throughout the roll-material contact. Another need is to move into three-dimensional modeling and to incorporate models of material behavior in the feeding devices. References 1 A.W. Jenike, R.T. Shield, On the plastic flow of coulomb solids beyond original failure, Journal of Applied Mechanics 26, Trans. ASME 81, Series E (1959) 599602. 2 J.R. Johanson, A rolling theory for granular solids, ASME, Journal of Applied Mechanics 32 (ser. E, No. 4) (1965) 842848. 3 V.P. Katashinskii, Analytical determination of specific pressure during the rollingof metalpowders(in Russian),Soviet PowderMetalCeram. 10 (6) (1986) 765772. 4 H.A. Kuhn, C.L. Downey, Deformation characteristics and plasticity theory of sintered powder materials, International Journal of Powder Metallurgy 7 (1) (1971) 1525. 5 R.T. Dec, Study of compaction process in roll press, Proceedings, Institute for Briquetting and Agglomeration 22 (1991) 207218. 6 R.T. Dec, R.K. Komarek, Roll press design for powder and bulk solids, Proc. 15th Powder and Bulk Solids Conference, June, 1990, pp. 125136. 7 V.P. Katashinskii, M.B. Stern, Stressstrain state of powder being rolled in the densification zone: I. Mathematical model of rolling in the densification zone, Poroshkovaya Metallurgiya 11 (251) (1983) 1721. 8 V.P. Katashinskii, M.B. Stern, Stressstrain state of powder being rolled in the densification zone: II. Distribution of density, longitudi- nal stain and contact stresses in the densification zone, Poroshkovaya Metallurgiya 12 (252) (1983) 913. 9 S. Shima, M. Yamada, Compaction of metal powder by rolling, Pow- der Metallurgy 27 (1) (1984) 3944. 10 PM Modet Modelling Group, Comparison of computer models rep- resenting powder compaction process, Powder Metallurgy 42 (4) (1999) 301311. 11 ABAQUS Version 5.8, Reference Manuals, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Pawtucket, R.I., 1999. 12 P.T. Wang, M.E. Karabin, Evolution of porosity during thin plate rolling of powder-based porous aluminum, Powder Technology 78 (1994) 6776. 13 J. Cunningham, PhD Thesis, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, USA (in press). R.T. Dec et al. / Powder Technology 130 (2003) 265271 271
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