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Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度 英屬殖民地時期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利堅合眾國時期(the Period of the United States)。公訴制度(public prosecution) 美國屬于普通法系(Common Law Legal System) 分散制(decentralization)為原則；以判例法(case law)為主體。 "零散的無系統(tǒng)"(fragmental nosystem)。成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)， 遵從前例"(stare decisis Part One The United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation. It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony. It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of selfgovernment of any nation. 美國既是一個非常新的國家也是一個非常老的國家。與許多別的國家相比它是一個新的國家。同時，它還因新人口成分和新州的加入而持續(xù)更新，在此意義上，它也是新國家。但是在其它的意義上它是老國家。它是最老的“新”國家——第一個由舊大陸殖民地脫胎而出的國家。它擁有最古老的成文憲法、最古老的持續(xù)的聯(lián)邦體制以及最古老的民族自治實踐。 One of the most interesting features of Americas youth is that the whole of its history belongs in the period since the invention of the printing press. The whole of its history is, therefore, recorded: indeed, it is safe to say that no other major nation has so comprehensive a record of its history as has the United States, for events such as those that are lost in the legendary past of Italy or France or England are part of the printed record of the United States. And the American record is not only comprehensive; it is immense. It embraces not only the record of the colonial era and of the Nation since 1776, but of the present fifty States as well, and the intricate network of relationships between States and Nation. Thus, to take a very elementary example, the reports of the United States Supreme Court fill some 350 volumes, and the reports of some States are almost equally voluminous: the reader who wants to trace the history of law in America is confronted with over 5,000 stout volumes of legal cases. 美國的年輕（性）有一個很有意思的特點就是它的歷史肇始于印刷機發(fā)明之后。因此它的整個歷史都得以記錄下來：確實可以很有把握地說，任何其它國家都沒有像美國這樣全面的歷史記錄，因為像在意大利、法國或者英國過去的傳說中湮沒的那樣的事件在美國都成了有文字記載的歷史之一部分。而且其記錄不僅全面，還非常浩繁。不僅包括這個國家自1776年以來的殖民時期的記錄，還有當前五十個州以及各州和聯(lián)邦（nation）之間錯綜復雜的關系網(wǎng)絡的歷史記錄。因此，據(jù)一個非常簡單的例子，美國最高法院判例匯編有大約350卷，而一些州的判例匯編也幾乎有同樣多的卷數(shù)：想研究美國法律史的讀者要面對的是超過5000巨卷的司法案例。 No one document, no handful of documents, can properly be said to reveal the character of a people or of their government. But when hundreds and thousands of documents strike a consistent note, over more than a hundred years, we have a right to say that is the keynote. When hundreds and thousands of documents address themselves in the same ways, to the same overarching problems, we have a right to read from them certain conclusions which we can call national characteristics. 我們不能說一個文件或幾個文件就能揭示出一國人民或其政府的特性。但如果橫跨一百多年的千百萬個文件敲出始終如一的音調(diào)，我們就有理由說這就是其主調(diào)。當千百萬個文件都以同樣的方式去解決同樣的中心問題，我們就有理由從中得出可以被稱為國民特定的確定結論。 Part Two The American legal system, like the English, is methodologically mainly a case law system. Most fields of private law still consist primarily of case law and the extensive and steadily growing statutory law continues to be subject to binding interpretation through case law. Knowledge of the case law method as well as of the technique of working with case law therefore is of central importance for an understanding of American law and legal methodology. 同英國一樣，美國法律制度從方法論上來說主要是一種判例法制度。許多私法領域仍然主要是由判例法構成，廣泛而不斷增長的制定法一直受制于有約束力的（解釋制定法的）判例法。因此，判例法方法的知識以及使用判例法的技巧對于理解美國法律和法律方法是極其重要的。 The Common Law is historically the common general law -- with supremacy over local law--which was decreed by the itinerant judges of the English royal court. The enforcement of a claim presupposed the existence of a special form of action, a writ, with the result that the original common law represented a system of "actions" similar to that of classical Roman law. If a writ existed (in 1227) a claim could be enforced; there was no recourse for a claim without a writ, the claim did not exist. This system became inflexible when the "Provisions of Oxford" (1258) prohibited the creation of new writs, except for the flexibility which the "writ upon the case" allowed and which later led to the development of contract and tort law. 從歷史的角度來看，普通法就是由英國皇家法院的巡回法官的判決所得出的普通的一般法——優(yōu)于地方法。采納或執(zhí)行某項訴訟請求是以存在法院令狀這種特殊形式的訴為前提的，而這就使最初的普通法表現(xiàn)為由類似于古羅馬法的“訴”所構成的體系。如果存在令狀（于1227年），訴訟請求就可以被采納或執(zhí)行；沒有法院令狀（為前提）的訴訟請求就沒有追索權，因而該訴訟請求也不存在?！芭＝驐l例”（1285年）禁止創(chuàng)設除了“個案令狀”之外的新令狀，這種“個案令狀”使該制度變得較為靈活了，而且導致了后來合同和侵權法的發(fā)展。 The narrow limits of the forms of action and the limited recourse they provided led to the development of equity law and equity case law. "Equity", in its general meaning of doing "equity", deciding ex aequo et bono, was first granted by the King, and later by his Chancellor as "keeper of the King's conscience", to afford relief in hardship cases. In the fifteenth century, however, equity law and equity case law developed into an independent legal system and judiciary (Court of Chancery) which competed with the ordinary common law courts. Its rules and maxims became fixed and, to a degree, inflexible as in any legal system. Special characteristics of equity law include: relief in the form of specific performance (in contrast to the common law award of compensatory damages), the injunction (a temporary or final order to do or not to do a specific act), the development of socalled maxims of equity law which permeated the entire legal system and in many cases explain the origin of modern legal concepts. However, equitable relief regularly will lie only when the common law relief is inadequate. For instance, specific performance for the purchase of real property will be granted because common law damages are deemed to be inadequate since they cannot compensate the buyer in view of the uniqueness attributed to real property 對于訴的形式的嚴格限制及由此產(chǎn)生的對追索權的限制導致了衡平法和衡平判例法的發(fā)展?！昂馄健钡囊话阋饬x就是尋求“公平”，即公平且善良地裁決，它最初是由國王，后來由作為“國王良知守護人”的大法官頒行，以便在艱難的案件中提供救濟。但是到了十四世紀，衡平法和衡平判例法發(fā)展成了一個獨立的法律制度和與一般的普通法法院一爭高下的司法系統(tǒng)（衡平法院）。其規(guī)則和格言變得非常固定而且在某種程度上不像在其它法律制度中一樣靈活。衡平法的特點有：以特定履行（或?qū)嶋H履行）的方式提供救濟（與普通法提供補償性損害賠償金的救濟方式形成對照）；強制令（為或者不為某項具體行為的臨時或者最終法令）；滲透了整個法律制度并且能在許多場合下揭示現(xiàn)代法律概念的起源的所謂的衡平法格言的發(fā)展。不過，一般都是只有在普通法救濟不充分時，才會出現(xiàn)衡平法救濟。比如，優(yōu)于普通法損害賠償金被認為是不充分的，這是因為考慮到不動產(chǎn)所具有的唯一性，這些賠償金無法補償不動產(chǎn)購買人（的損失），就可能判以特定履行購買不動產(chǎn)。 As the common law, equity law became part of American law either through judicial acceptance or through express statutory provision. Today, both legal systems have been merged in many American jurisdictions (beginning with New York in 1848), with the result that there is only one form of civil suit in these jurisdictions as well as in federal practice. Only few States continue to maintain a separate chancery court. Nevertheless, the reference to the historical development is important because, on the one hand, it explains the origin and significance of many contemporary legal concepts (for instance the division of title in the law of property) and, on the other hand, it is still relevant for the decision of such questions whether, for instance, there is a right to a trial by jury (only in the case of common law suits, in other cases only before the judge). In addition, the differentiation will determine whether the "ordinary" common law relief of damages applies or whether the "extraordinary" equity remedy of specific performance is available. 與普通法一樣，衡平法通過司法接納或通過明確的制定法條款，成了美國法律的一部分。目前，這兩個法律制度在許多美國司法管轄區(qū)中得以融合（始于1848年的紐約），因而，在這些司法管轄區(qū)以及聯(lián)邦的實踐中只存在一種形式的民事訴訟。只有為數(shù)很少的州還保留著單獨的衡平法院。盡管如此，提及這一歷史演變?nèi)匀皇呛苤匾?，因為它一方面解釋了許多當代法律概念（如財產(chǎn)法中的所有權分割）的起源和意義，另一方面，它仍然與做出某些裁決有一定的關聯(lián)，比如是否有權獲得陪審團的審理（這僅發(fā)生與普通法的訟案中，在其它案件中僅由法官審理）。另外，這種區(qū)別將決定“通常的”普通法賠償金救濟是否適用或者是否可以使用“特別的”衡平法特定履行救濟。 "Case law"describes the entire body of judgemade law and today includes common law and equity precedents. In imprecise and confusing usage the terms "common law" and "case law" are often used synonymously, with the term "common law" in this usage connoting judgemade law in general as contrasted with statutory law. "Case law" always connotes judgemade law, while "common law" in contrast--depending on the meaning intended--describes either the judge made law in common law subject matters or, ore extensively, all judge made law. “判例法”代表了整個的法官造法體系，而且在現(xiàn)代還包括了普通法和衡平法先例。在不準確的和令人迷惑的用法中，“普通法”和“判例法”這兩個術語通常被當作同義詞來使用，在這里，“普通法”這個術語一般代表著法官制定的法，以示區(qū)別制定法?！芭欣ā笨偸谴碇ü僦贫ǖ姆?，而“普通法”則相對來說，根據(jù)想表達的意思不同，要么代表普通法主題事項（即具體問題）上法官制定的法律，要么在更廣范圍內(nèi)指所有法官制定的法律。 Lesson Two：Legal Profession 法律職業(yè) Part One： The Bar The regulation of the legal profession is primarily the concern of the states, each of which has its own requirements for admission to practice. Most require three years of college and a law degree. Each state administers its own written examination to applicants for its bar. Almost all states, however, make use of the Multistate Bar Exam, a daylong multiplechoice test, to which the state adds a daylong essay examination emphasizing its own law. A substantial fraction of all applicants succeed on the first try, and many of those who fail pass on a later attempt. In all, over forty thousand persons succeed in passing these examinations each year and, after an inquiry into their character, are admitted to the bar in their respective states. No apprenticeship is required either before or after admission. The rules for admission to practice before the federal courts vary with the court, but generally those entitled to practice before the highest court of a state may be admitted before the federal courts upon compliance with minor formalities. 法律職業(yè)的規(guī)范主要是各州的事務，每一各州對于執(zhí)業(yè)許可都有其自己的要求。大多數(shù)州都要求三年的學業(yè)和法律學位。各州自行管理本州申請律師資格的書面考試。不過，幾乎所有的州都利用“多州律師資格考試”，這是一種長達一天的多項選擇測試，在這項考試之外，各州還會再增加一次主要是關于其本州法律的時長一天的論文考試。大多數(shù)申請人都可以通過第一次考試，而且許多失敗者都會在下一次考試中通過。每年有四萬多人通過這些考試，在經(jīng)過人品調(diào)查之后，他們便可獲準在相應的州執(zhí)業(yè)許可。在獲得許可之前或之后都不要求實習。到各聯(lián)邦法院執(zhí)業(yè)的許可規(guī)則互不相同，但一般來講，那些獲準在州最高法院執(zhí)業(yè)的律師在辦理一些無關緊要的手續(xù)之后即可獲準在聯(lián)邦法院執(zhí)業(yè)。 A lawyer's practice is usually confined to a single community for, although a lawyer may travel to represent clients, one is only permitted to practice in a state where one has been admitted. It is customary to retain local counsel for matters in other jurisdictions. However, one who moves to another state can usually be admitted without examination if one has practiced in a state where one has been admitted for some time, often five years. 律師執(zhí)業(yè)范圍通常僅限于一個地區(qū)，因為盡管律師可以代表當事人到其它地區(qū)辦理事務，但是一個人只能在其獲得許可的州內(nèi)執(zhí)業(yè)。人們習慣雇用本州的律師辦理其它洲的事務。但是，只要一個人已經(jīng)在其獲得職業(yè)資格的州執(zhí)業(yè)達一定時間（通常是五年），那么他移居到另外一個州時通常無需考試便可獲得執(zhí)業(yè)許可。 A lawyer may not only practice law, but is permitted to engage in any activity that is open to other citizens. It is not uncommon for the practicing lawyer to serve on boards of directors of corporate clients, to engage in business, and to participate actively in public affairs. A lawyer remains a member of the bar even after becoming a judge, an employee of the government or of a private business concern, or a law teacher, and may return to private practice from these other activities. A relatively small number of lawyers give up practice for responsible executive positions in commerce and industry. The mobility as well as the sense of public responsibility in the profession is evidenced by the career of Harlan Fiske Stone who was, at various times, a successful New York lawyer, a professor and dean of the Columbia School of Law, Attorney General of the United States, and Chief Justice of the United States. 律師不僅可以從事法律事務，還允許從事任何其他公民能從事的事務。執(zhí)業(yè)律師在企業(yè)客戶的董事會中工作、從事商業(yè)或者積極參與公共事務都是很平常的事情。律師即使在成為法官、政府或者私人企業(yè)集團的雇員或者法律教師之后仍然是律師協(xié)會的會員，他們可以辭掉這些其它事務，回頭開始私人執(zhí)業(yè)。為了在工商業(yè)中擔任重要的執(zhí)行職務而放棄執(zhí)業(yè)的律師人數(shù)相對較少。這一職業(yè)中的流動性和公共責任感的一個例證是哈蘭·菲斯克的職業(yè)生涯，他曾多次成為一名紐約州律師、一名教授和哥倫比亞法學院院長、美國總檢察長和美國最高法院首席大法官。 There is no formal division among lawyers according to function. The distinction between barristers and solicitors found in England did not take root in the United States, and there is no branch of the profession that has a special or exclusive right to appear in court, nor is there a branch that specializes in the preparation of legal instruments. The American lawyers domain includes advocacy, counselling, and drafting. Furthermore, within the sphere broadly defined as the "practice of law" the domain is exclusive and is not open to others. In the field of advocacy, the rules are fairly clear: any individual may represent himself or herself in court but, with the exception of a few inferior courts, only a lawyer may represent another in court. Nonlawyers are, however, authorized to represent others in formal proceedings of a judicial nature before some administrative agencies. The lines of demarcation are less clear in the areas of counselling and drafting of legal instruments, as for example between the practice of law and that of accounting in the field of federal income taxation. However, the strict approach of most American courts is indicated by a decision of New Yorks highest court that a lawyer admitted to practice in a foreign country but not in New York is prohibited from giving legal advice to clients in New York, even though the advice is limited to the law of the foreign country where the lawyer is admitted. A foreign lawyer may, however, be admitted to the bar of one of the states and may, even without being admitted, advise an American lawyer as a consultant on foreign law 律師并不按照職責進行正式的劃分。在英國對訴訟律師和非訴律師的區(qū)分并沒有移植到美國，既不存在擁有特別或者專有出庭權的職業(yè)群體，也沒有專門制作法律文書的職業(yè)群體。美國律師的業(yè)務范圍包括出庭辯護、咨詢和起草文書。另外，在被廣泛地成為“法律執(zhí)業(yè)”的范圍之內(nèi)，律師的業(yè)務范圍是專有性的，不對其他人開放。在出庭辯護領域，這種規(guī)則非常清楚：任何個人都可以代表其自己出庭，但除了一些基層法院之外，只有律師可以代表他人出庭。不過，律師不得代表他人參與一些行政機關設立的具有司法性質(zhì)的正式程序當中。在咨詢和起草法律文書領域的界限并不是太清晰，比如在在聯(lián)邦所得稅領域的法律執(zhí)業(yè)和會計執(zhí)業(yè)之間就是如此。但是，紐約最高法院的一個裁決表明了大多數(shù)美國法院的嚴格標準，該裁決認為，一個獲準在外國執(zhí)業(yè)單位獲準在紐約執(zhí)業(yè)的律師不得在紐約對客戶提供法律咨詢，即使該意見僅限于該律師獲準執(zhí)業(yè)的該外國的法律。但是，一個外國律師可能獲準在一個州執(zhí)業(yè)，而且無需獲得許可便可以以一個外國法律顧問的身份向美國律師提供法律咨詢。 Part Two： Lawyers in Private Practice Among these fifteen lawyers in practice, nine, a clear majority, are single practitioners. The remaining six practice in law firms, which are generally organized as partnerships. Four or five of these six are partners and the others are associates, a term applied to salaried lawyers employed by a firm or another lawyer. This trend toward group practice is of relatively recent origin. Throughout most of the nineteenth century law practice was general rather than specialized, its chief ingredient was advocacy rather than counselling and drafting, and the prototype of the American lawyer was the single practitioner. Marked specialization began in the latter part of that century in the large cities near the financial centers. With the growth of big business, big government, and big labor, the work of the lawyer accomodated itself to the needs of clients for expert counselling and drafting to prevent as well as to settle disputes. The best lawyers were attracted to this work and leadership of the bar gravitated to persons who rarely if ever appeared in court and who were sought after as advisors, planners, and negotiators. Today the lawyer regards it as sound practice to be continuously familiar with clients business problems and to participate at all steps in the shaping of their policies. Major business transactions are rarely undertaken without advice of counsel. 第二部分 私人執(zhí)業(yè)中的律師 每十五個執(zhí)業(yè)律師中有九個（明顯的多數(shù)）都是單獨執(zhí)業(yè)者。剩下六個在律師事務所執(zhí)業(yè)，這些所一般是合伙制。這六個律師中有四到五個都是合伙人，其余的為非合伙律師（雇傭律師）。這種集體執(zhí)業(yè)的趨勢只是在近年來才開始出現(xiàn)。十九世紀的大多數(shù)時間內(nèi)，律師執(zhí)業(yè)都是非專業(yè)化的，其主要內(nèi)容是辯護而不是咨詢和起草法律文書，因此美國律師的最早形式是單獨執(zhí)業(yè)。明顯的專業(yè)化出現(xiàn)于十九世紀后期金融中心附近的大城市里。隨著出現(xiàn)大型的企業(yè)、龐大的政府和大規(guī)模的勞工，律師的工作本身要適應客戶對解決爭端以及專業(yè)咨詢和起草法律文書等預防性法律事務的需要。出類拔萃的律師都被吸引到這一領域，而且律師職業(yè)領導的重心轉(zhuǎn)向了那些很少出庭的從事顧問、做計劃以及從事談判的人。現(xiàn)在，律師認為不斷熟悉客戶的業(yè)務問題并參與其政策制定的各個步驟已經(jīng)成了一種正常、合理的執(zhí)業(yè)形式。 Part Three: House Counsel Out of every twenty lawyers, two are employed by private business concerns, such as industrial corporations, insurance companies, and banks, usually as house or corporate counsel in the concerns legal department. The growth of corporations, the complexity of business, and the multitude of problems posed by government regulation make it desirable for such firms to have in their employ persons with legal training who, at the same time, are intimately familiar with the particular problems and conditions of the firm. In large corporations the legal department may number one hundred or more. The general counsel, who heads the office, is usually an officer of the company and may serve on important policy making committees and perhaps even on the board of directors. House counsel remain members of the bar and are entitled to appear in court, though an outside lawyer is often retained for litigation. However, it is the house counsels skill as advisor rather than as advocate that is a valued asset. Constantly in touch with the employers problems, house counsel is ideally situated to practice preventive law and may also be called upon to advise the company on its broader obligation to the public and the nation. 第三部分 專職法律顧問 每二十個律師當中有兩個受雇于私人企業(yè)，如工業(yè)公司、保險公司和銀行。他們通常在企業(yè)的法律部門工作，作為專職或者企業(yè)法律顧問。公司規(guī)模的擴大、業(yè)務的復雜以及政府管制所產(chǎn)生的問題的多樣化使得這類企業(yè)需要在企雇員中有受過法律培訓的人員，這些人同時還非常熟悉企業(yè)的具體問題和情況。在一些大公司中，法律部的人數(shù)可能超過百人。該部門的主任，也叫總法律顧問，通常是公司的一名高級職員，可能供職于重要的決策委員會，甚至是董事會成員。專職法律顧問也是律師協(xié)會的成員并有權出庭代理訴訟，盡管公司打官司通常還是回請外部律師擔任訴訟代理人。但是，專職法律顧問的特長是咨詢而不是訴訟代理，這是他的一種寶貴資產(chǎn)。由于不斷接觸雇主的各類問題，專職法律顧問的理想定位是預防性法律事務，它還可以根據(jù)要求向公司就其對公眾和國家更為廣泛的義務提供咨詢。 Part Four： Lawyers in Government A parallel development has taken place in government and two out of twenty lawyers are now employees of the federal, state, county, and municipal governments, exclusive of the judiciary. Many of those entering public service are recent law graduates who find government salaries sufficiently attractive at this stage of their careers and seek the training that such service may offer as a prelude to private practice. Limitations on top salaries, however, discourage some from continuing with the government. The majority serves by appointment in the legal departments of a variety of federal and state agencies and local entities. The United States Department of Justice alone employs more than two thousands, and the Law Department of the City of New York more than four hundreds. Others are engaged as public prosecutors. Federal prosecutors, the United States attorneys and their assistants, are appointed by the President and are subordinate to the Attorney General of the United States. State prosecutors, sometimes known as district attorneys, are commonly elected by each county and are not under the control of the state attorney general. As a rule, lawyers in government are directly engaged in legal work, since law training is infrequently sought as preparation for general government service. However, a small but important minority that constitutes an exception to this rule consists of those who have been appointed to high executive positions and those who have been elected to political office. Though the participation of lawyers in government has declined recently, for two centuries lawyers have made up roughly half of the Congress of the United States and of the state governors. These figures bear out the comment of Chief Justice Stone that, "No tradition of our profession is more cherished by lawyers than that of its leadership in public affairs." 第四部分 政府律師 律師職業(yè)在政府中也出現(xiàn)了同樣的發(fā)展，目前每二十個律師中有兩個（不包括法官）受雇于聯(lián)邦、州、縣和市鎮(zhèn)政府。進入公共服務領域的人許多是認為在其工作生涯的這一階段政府工資有吸引力和尋求鍛煉機會并將這種鍛煉作為私人執(zhí)業(yè)前奏的法學畢業(yè)生。他們大多數(shù)都是通過任命而供職于聯(lián)邦和州的各級政府機關以及勞工組織中的法律部門。僅美國司法部一家就雇傭了兩千多名律師，紐約市的法律部雇的人數(shù)超過四千。其他律師的角色是公訴人。聯(lián)邦公訴人，即美國的檢察官及其助理由總統(tǒng)任命，受美國總檢察長領導。州公訴人，有時是地區(qū)檢察官，通常由各縣選舉產(chǎn)生，并且不受州檢察長的控制。作為一種規(guī)則，政府律師都是直接從事法律工作，因為法律培訓很少作為一般的政府服務的準備工作。但是，那些被任命為高級行政職務和被選舉擔任政治官職的人是這一規(guī)則的一個少數(shù)但卻很重要的例外。盡管近來律師參與政府工作在減少，但兩個世紀以來律師已經(jīng)構成了美國國會和各州州長的大約半數(shù)。這些數(shù)字證明了斯通大法官的話：“在我們的職業(yè)傳統(tǒng)中，沒有一個能像其擔任公共事務領導的傳統(tǒng)那樣受到律師們的鐘愛。” Lesson Three: Legal Education 法律教育 必修課(Required Course)為主，包括合同法(Contract Law)、侵權法(Tort Law)、財產(chǎn)法(Property Law)、刑法(Criminal Law)、民事訴訟(Civil Procedure)和法律文書寫作(Legal Writing)等；選修課(Elective Course) 批判性思維(critical thinking) 案例教學法(Case Method)和 問答式即蘇格拉底式教學法(Socratic Method)。 In 1983, over 125,000 law students were studying in more than 170 ABA accredited law schools including public law schools supported in part by government funds; private law schools supported by contributions from individuals and foundation funds; and local or national schools offering full